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The presence of the construct of China’s cultural soft power initiatives has been a notable presence in the Chinese discourse on China’s policies towards Sudan. As with many of the constructs present in the Chinese narrative, this construct is symbolic of the changes that Chinese foreign policy has undergone as well as for the perceptions of China’s identity. As with the construct of China as a role model, the construct of cultural soft power has been one of the means to spread the Chinese constructs as well as being one of the constructs of the

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Chinese discourse itself. The most notable manifestation of this construct can be seen in the depictions of Chinese cultural soft power initiatives in Sudan presented by the Chinese discourse. This chiefly comes in the form of the programmes initiated by the Confucius Institute, particularly in the promotion of Chinese language and culture, as illustrated by the culture exchanges between China and Sudan as well as the rise of classes in Chinese language and culture, which are described as:

“Overseas students from both sides were dispatched to study language and culture, which promoted the culture exchange between the two countries”. (Culture Exchanges between China and Sudan)

The study of language and culture alluded to here is suggestive of how the Chinese constructs of China’s identity are spread beyond their original context, which serves to further the notion of Chinese soft power initiatives being as much exercises in normative power as they are in soft power. The emphasis on Chinese culture is reflective of the more culturalist bent of China’s identity in the post-Mao era (Guang, 2012, pg. 497). The construct of cultural soft power here is illustrative of the Chinese constructs of China’s African policies as well as how they are spread. The statement is indicative of the methodology of Chinese foreign policy in the African states, which has emphasised soft rather than hard power. This is also illustrative of the appeal of China’s vision, with China becoming the most popular study destination for students from the Anglophone nations of Africa. It is this aspect that illustrates some of the initial gains made by China’s normative foreign policy in the African states, which has furthered Beijing’s attempts to build its influence in the developing world. In addition, it is through the mechanism of cultural soft power that the Chinese meaning of China is spread to a wider context, which illustrates China’s attempts to influence the foreign policies of other states.

While these initiatives have often been interpreted as merely a means to achieve China’s economic objectives in the African continent, it is illustrative of how the changes in the Chinese discourse are indicative of the shifts in Chinese foreign policy objectives since the end of the Cold War, which was to utilise soft power to achieve foreign policy objectives in the African continent. The concept of cultural soft power is also suggestive of the shifts in the constructs of China’s identity towards a more cultural perception and the more recent utilisation of China’s culture and imperial past as a source of national pride (Chan, 2008, pg. 146). It is the spread of this image that is symbolic of the spread of Chinese norms and the Chinese system

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beyond their original context, further underlining the more normative dimensions behind Chinese foreign policy, which are depicted in The Right to Development as:

“The Chinese government endeavours to restructure China's cultural system, free and develop cultural productivity, to create equal opportunity for all citizens to enjoy benefits of cultural development and to have access to cultural development opportunities and ensure realization of their right to cultural development.” (The Right to Development)

This statement alludes to China’s cultural diplomacy in the form of ‘cultural development’, which overlaps with the construct of China the role model. It is the depictions of the access to these opportunities for cultural development that are illustrative of how the Chinese system as well as its’ norms and constructs are spread beyond their original context. There is an overlap between the construct off cultural soft power and some of the other constructs present in the Chinese corpus which has been expressed through the reference to ‘cultural development’, which overlaps with the construct of mutuality. The reference to development is also suggestive of the construct of China as a role model, which has been a notable part of China’s soft power offensive as well as being part of China’s appeal to the developing world. It is the overlaps between these constructs that demonstrates how the Chinese constructs are unified into a single image that articulates China’s vision for the African states, which has played a notable role in furthering Chinese influence in the developing world.

This perception of China’s identity is also connected to the more dominant construct of China as a role model. Both constructs are symbolic of China’s perception of Chinese identity, which has largely seen a reversion to the more cultural identity from China’s imperial past (He, 2009, pg. 60). The parallels between these two constructs are symbolic of the shifts in China’s identity and foreign policy. It is the idea that China’s cultural soft power initiatives seek to spread Chinese norms that further underlines the normative considerations behind China’s African policies. This has been emphasised in the constructs detailed throughout the case study as well as being one of the aspects of Chinese foreign policy that the research sought to cover. China’s soft power initiatives are as much an exercise in normative power as they are in the concept of soft power defined by Nye (2012, pg. 151).

The presence of this construct is indicative of the structures of experience that influence the creation of the Chinese discourse. This has come in the form of the legacy of China’s experiences as an empire in East Asia, which can be seen in the utilisation of Chinese soft

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power initiatives, which serve a role like how Chinese culture was once one of the cornerstones of imperial authority (Guang, 2009, pg. 488). This illustrates the continuity and change within the Chinese discourse as well as the views of China’s present identity. It is this depiction of China that highlights the role of China’s experiences as an imperial power in East Asia upon the Chinese discourse as well as illustrating the shifts in the experiences between the Maoist discourse of the past and the Chinese narrative of today.

In all, while the construct of cultural soft power may not have the same prevalence as the other dominant constructs in the Chinese discourse on Chinese policy towards Sudan, it is nevertheless an indication of several factors present within the Chinese narrative. The most significant of these is how the Chinese narrative is symbolic of the changes in Chinese foreign policy as well as those of the Chinese perceptions of China’s role and identity. It is these changes that suggest a move towards a more culturalist identity since the shift in Chinese foreign policy objectives in the closing days of the twentieth century.

As Table 8 shows, the Chinese corpus regarding China’s activities in Sudan has also been dominated by four primary constructs. These constructs have often overlapped to create a more unified image of China’s African policies, which has been chiefly expressed in the language utilised in the Chinese texts. The presence of these constructs has also been affected by the shifts in Chinese administrations, as illustrated by the presence of the China Dream during the Xi era, which reflects the shifts in Chinese foreign policy alongside the Chinese perceptions of China’s role and identity.

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4.6 Summary

The American and Chinese discourses on China’s approach to Sudan create two different images of Chinese foreign policy. Both depictions were constituted by several primary, often interacting constructs which are derived from the respective sets of norms that govern the discourses and the literature on the subject. This has led to the creation of two conflicting images of China’s African policies, which has been as much a creation of the norms behind these images as they have been a causative reaction to Chinese activities. It is these conflicting images alongside the norms that influenced their creation that has underlined how they are reflective of two systems that seek to spread these norms to a wider context. These competing images also reflect the wider issue of the construction of China’s international identity, which has been notable in the construct of cultural soft power, which sought to spread the Chinese perception of this to challenge the established image of China (Jing et al, 2016, pg. 2). In the vein of Foucault, the knowledge regarding China’s activities in Sudan demonstrates the relationship between knowledge creation and political power via the competing images of these activities. While the dominant constructs have remained somewhat consistent with the initial expectations for this case study, there have been many notable variations between these expectations and the findings for this case study.

The image of Chinese policy towards Sudan created by the American discourse has been characterised by the depiction of China as a facilitator of authoritarian political norms in Sudan as well as being a reluctant imperial power. The former is both a causative reaction to China’s support for the Bashir regime as well as being a more normative one to the attempts by the Chinese constructs to spread themselves to a wider context, in this case, by promoting authoritarian norms (Power and Mohan, 2010, pg. 478). Such images have reflected the shift in administration from the assumption that China’s development would facilitate democratic norms to the perception that the Chinese developmental model is spreading authoritarian norms itself. This has been a deviation from the expected image of China as a rival for American interests in the African continent. Such an image is likely to be of further significance as China begins to enhance its military presence in the African continent. It is possible that the furthering of China’s presence in the continent may amplify the perception of China as a rival as it begins to be perceived as coming into conflict with the interests of the other external powers in the continent. This also shows how the experiences of the European powers in the continent has influenced the American discourse on China in Africa.

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The Chinese discourse has depicted China as an example for Sudan to follow. This depiction has largely been tied with the mutual experiences of China’s economic development, which highlights the comparatively recent ties between China and Sudan. In addition, this emphasises the cultural dimensions of China’s identity, which has emerged with the shifts in Chinese foreign policy. This conflicts with the negative image of Chinese foreign policy created by the American narrative which also highlights the normative conflict between the two narratives over their depiction of China in Africa since this is again an attempt by the American and Chinese discourses to spread their systems and norms beyond the context of their creation. This also serves as the construct of China’s identity that the Chinese constructs seek to spread. The emphasis on this construct serves to illustrate how the Chinese constructs are reflective of the shifts in Chinese foreign policy, in this case, the adoption of cultural soft power initiatives to further Chinese foreign policy goals in Sudan. It is this emphasis on soft power that reflects the nature and methodology of Chinese foreign policy, something that has been subject to misinterpretation by the populist images of Chinese strategy, which have largely focused on China’s hard power capabilities (Eno and Eno, 2014, pg. 26).

The more normative dimensions of these images have also underlined aspects of Chinese foreign policy that have been largely overlooked in the established literature regarding China in Africa and have been symbolic of the wider issues of the research. This has chiefly come in the form of China as a role model, which illustrates the more normative challenges that China poses, most notably in the ability to achieve economic development without the adoption of democratic norms (Van de Walle, 2016, pg. 161). The invocation of this model, alongside China’s experiences of economic development, has been one of the sources of Chinese prestige as well as enabling Beijing to get a foothold in Sudan. This has also illustrated the nature of power in Chinese foreign policy through the construct of cultural soft power. This shows how soft power enjoys an equal if not greater emphasis to hard power in Chinese foreign policy. Such a notion has often been overlooked in the more established images of Chinese foreign policy, which have often emphasised China’s economic and hard power capabilities, which has led to a certain image of China, most notably the common image of the China threat.

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