Nigeria encompasses a diverse array of independent ethnic groups, each of whom had established political systems with an accompanying civic life in the pre-colonial past. An associational life rooted in that period can be described as largely traditional, with membership based on age, ethnicity, religious affiliation and other descriptive qualities. These associations are less likely to produce generalized trust and reciprocity in the larger community but play a pivotal role in providing essential services to community members and linking individuals.
Each group has its systems of marriage and family organization that are affected by the system of descent and, hence, the domination or parity of men and women in their societies.
In Nigeria’s Identifiable Ethnic Groups, Otitie asserts that:
Nigerian people and their cultures have common distant roots, with their "pasts" anchored in the heritage of the three main languistic families to which most Nigerian languages belong. The first is the Niger-Congo linguistic family, with its subgroups, which include such languages as the Bariba, Birom, Busa, Chamba, Edo (including Bini and Urhobo), Efik (including Ibibio), Fulani, Idoma, lgbo, ljo (ljaw), Jukun, Kambari, Nupe, Tiv, Vere and Yoruba. The second major languistic family, the Afro-Asiatic, consists of Angas, Bachama, Bura, Hausa, Higi, Mergi, Shuwa and others. The third major languistic group is the Nilo-Saharan that includes Dendi and Kanuri, among others (Otitie 2010, 2).
People who speak one or more languages among these different Nigerian linguistic families have lived together as neighbors for long periods under mutual socio-economic and socio-political influences as well as under language and cultural borrowing. Nigeria's three languistic families or socio-cultural units have evolved over centuries, with diverse historical experiences in different geographical regions, into a more recent and complex heterogeneity of nations and cultures.
Nigeria counts three hundred and fifty ethnic groups including the ethnic minority groups. There are only three ethnic groups which have attained “ethnic majority” status in their respective regions: the Hausa-Fulani in the north, the Ibo in the southeast, and the Yoruba in the southwest. These three groups comprise only fifty-seven percent of the population of Nigeria. The others are members of the ethnic minority groups. These minority groups usually do not have a political voice, nor do they have access to resources or the
technology needed to develop and modernize economically. They therefore often consider themselves discriminated against, neglected, or oppressed.
The Hausa-Fulani are an example of a fused ethnic group, as they are actually made up of two groups, not surprisingly called the Hausa and the Fulani. The Hausa are themselves a fusion, a collection of Sudanese peoples that were assimilated long ago into the population inhabiting what is now considered Hausaland in the north. They are adherents of Islam. Their origin is a matter of dispute: legends trace them back to Canaan, Palestine, Libya, Mecca and Baghdad, while ethnologists hold them to be from the Southern Sahara or the Chad Basin. Once they arrived in Hausaland they became known for setting up seven small states centered around “Birni,” or walled cities. In these states, the Hausa developed techniques of efficient government, including a carefully organized fiscal system and a highly learned judiciary that gave them a reputation for integrity and ability in administering Islamic law (Ayeni 2010, 42).
The Fulani are also primarily Muslims, and, like the Hausa, their origin is more or less an open question. Once a nomadic people, they believe themselves to be descended from the gypsies, Roman soldiers who became lost in the desert, a lost “tribe” of Israel, or other groups such as the relatives of the Britons or the Tuaregs, who inhabit the southern edge of the Sahara desert in central Africa. Scholars claim that the Fulani are related to the Phoenicians, or place their origin in shepherds of Mauritania that were looking for new pastures. The Fulani are known to have arrived in the Hausa states in the early 13th century. Since then they have intermarried with the Hausa and have mostly adopted the latter's customs and language, although some Fulani decided to stay “pure” by retaining a nomadic life and animist beliefs. The Fulani are most distinctively known for a dispute that developed between them and the
local King of Gobir, a spat which developed into a religious war or Jihad ending with a Fulani conquest of the Hausa states (Okpu 1977, 20-21).
The second majority ethnic group is the Ibo, who like the Hausa-Fulani are a synthesis of smaller ethnic groups. In this case, the smaller groups are the Onitsha Ibo, the Western Ibo, the Cross River Ibo, and the North-eastern Ibo. Their origins are completely unknown, as they claim to be from about nineteen different places. They do maintain an “indigenous home,” however: the belt of forest in the country to the east of the Niger Valley. This home was established to avoid the Fulani's annual slave raids, which were conducted on cavalry that was unable to explore very deeply into the forest. The Ibo thus generally inhabited inaccessible areas, although during the 19th century they began to assert ancestral claims to Nri town, “the heart of the Ibo nationality” (Okpu 1977, 11, 21). The Ibo established a society that was fascinating in its decentralization. Their largest societal unit was the village, where each extended family managed its own affairs without being dictated to by any higher authority. Where chiefs existed, they held very restricted political power, and only local jurisdiction. The villages were democratic in nature, as the government of the community was the concern of all who lived in it.
The third ethnic majority group, the Yoruba, like the others, is made up of numerous smaller collections of people. Those who are identified as Yoruba consider themselves to be members of the Oyo, Egba, Ijebu, Ife, Ilesha, Ekiti or Owu peoples. The Yoruba are united, however, by their common belief in the town of Ife as their place of origin, and the Oni of Ife as their spiritual leader. Their mythology holds that “Oduduwa” created the earth; present royal houses of the Yoruba kingdoms trace their ancestry back to “Oduduwa,” while members of the Yoruba people maintain that they are descended from his sons (Okpu 1977, 29 -31).
Yoruba society is organized into kingdoms, the greatest of which was called Oyo and extended as far as Ghana in the west and the banks of the Niger to the east. The Oyo Empire collapsed in 1830 when Afonja, an ambitious governor of the state of Ilorin, broke away but lost his territory to the hired mercenaries of the Fulani. Despite the fact that this event occurred in close temporal proximity to the Fulani jihad, it was not associated with it.
The members of the ethnic minority groups include such peoples as the Kanuri, the Nupe, and the Tiv in the north, the Efik/Ibibio, the Ejaw, and the Ekoi in the east, and the Edo and Urhobo/Isoko to the west, along with hundreds of other groups that differ widely in language, culture and even physique. The gap between perceptions of ethnicity differences, which resulted from exposure to different social, politico-economic and environmental circumstances, is now gradually narrowing. Common traits are evolving, fashioned by the growing interaction among the various people of Nigeria. In spite of this homogenizing development, ethnic identities and ethnicity will persist, at least in the foreseeable future, as the different peoples organize and mobilize their exclusive cultural symbols as powerful means of gaining access to the nation's political and economic resources.