One of the common strategies to cope with stress and shock is UA, as mentioned above. It has been observed in the cities of developing and developed countries (FAO, WFP and IFAD, 2011). UA emerges in cities and settlements adjacent to the city as a coping strategy undertaken by poor people due to economic crisis, food price hikes, difficult political situations and increased populations (Jacobi et al, 2000; Simatele, 2007). A combination of several conditions is responsible for inducing the emergency and adoption of UA (Jacobi et al, 2000; Simatele, 2007). In contrast to the above in the absence of one condition or their combination can adversely limit the development and adoption of UA activities into urban development (Simatele, 2007). The conditions being referred to here are: natural, economic, institutional, socio-cultural and physical infrastructure and services see (table 3.2) (Jacobi et al, 2000). These conditions are all crucial in determining the development and integration of UA in cities as a response to crisis by the affected poor people and institutions in power (Simatele, 2007).
Table 3.1: Essential conditions urban populations need during a crisis in the development and integration of UA.
Development and integration of UA in cities as a response to crisis relies on: Natural Conditions Physical infrastructure and services Institutional Conditions Socio-cultural Conditions Economic conditions climatic conditions availability of water access to space farming traditions employment
(incomes rainfall availability of space access to water food preferences assets- land temperature availability of loans urban planning people’s attitudes
soil fertility grass-root unions urban governance
training /services legal framework
agro inputs
Source: Adapted from Jacobi et al. (2000); Simatele (2007)
The ways in which the conditions affect the development and integration of UA in cities will be briefly discussed. Firstly natural conditions refer to climatic attributes, rainfall patterns, temperature variability and soil fertility. For example, a city may be susceptible to low agricultural productivity
due to low or unreliable rainfall and poor soils. In the northern parts of SA, including Gauteng Province, rainfall is mainly during the summer months from October to March. Therefore the climatic variability is characterised by a high occurrence of UA because there is no major investment required. This is with particular reference to the rain-fed crops such as maize.
Secondly, Infrastructure and service provision are essential in development and integration of UA. UA requires land space, water and training service providers. Without the availability of land space and water it is noted that urban households cannot effectively respond to crisis by entering into urban food production (Jacobi et al, 2000; Mougeot, 2005). Inadequate training, lack of seed, fertiliser, loans and other inputs have a negative impact on agricultural productivity. There needs to be adequate access to the above inputs to ensure the success of urban famers in significantly improving their household and city economy. Therefore African cities need to address matters pertaining to the lack of support services and infrastructure (Simatele, 2007).
Thirdly, Institutional conditions are important elements in integration and development of UA into policy. Here there is a need for institutions to create enabling environments for UA to thrive. This can be achieved by not restricting access to facilities and services deemed necessary in the pursuit of UA (Simatele, 2007). The services include elements such as water, loans, extension services and the use of urban space for urban food production (Jacobi et al, 2000). Cheru (2002; 160) argues that “at city and municipal government levels, a lack of resources and knowledge prevent people and institutions from solving problems and managing change”. As institutions are closely linked to the legal framework of the country or city, any weakness in the institutional framework can either spearhead or constrain the development of UA (Simatele, 2007). It can then be argued that the above is not applicable to Soweto. This is because in recent months the local municipality has been developing a plan to incorporate and expand the prevalence of UA in settlements adjacent to the city, including Soweto (COJ, 2013). A discussion on the role of governments below further delves into the issues raised here.
The fourth condition is the socio-cultural factors. They are considered as factors that can either facilitate or constrain development and integration of UA into policy. According to Mougeot (2005) socio-cultural conditions refer to the households farming traditions and food preferences as an entry point into practicing UA on one hand and integrating it into policy on the other. The food preferences are related to the specific types of food crops (Jacobi, et al, 2000). Therefore, as noted by Simatele (2007), when the urban population has a strong taste for locally produced foods not available and cannot be bought in conventional shops, there is a high likelihood for UA to be used as a mechanism to meeting the need.
The last condition is the economic factor. According to the economic factor, the emergence of UA in urban centres is considered as a response to the shortage of employment opportunities in the cities (Simatele, 2007). Due to the lack of employment opportunities in relation to the demand for employment people are forced to enter into informal jobs such as UA to gain income (Jacobi et al, 2000; Beall, 2002). There is a need for UA to also contribute to the city economy in order for the activity to be seen as a viable investment. The above conditions in the crisis model show that there needs to be some keen interest from local authorities to intensify UA. The conditions are inter- related in that for UA to occur, at least two or more conditions need to be operating simultaneously. Therefore it is essential for local authorities to move toward more inclusive approaches that will accommodate not only investment projects, but also informal activities like UA.