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Issues of reliability and validity are central to quantitative research. Although these issues are equally important in the qualitative tradition, the ways they are addressed in this context differs to the quantitative context.

8.3.1 Reliability

In quantitative research, Joppe defines reliability as: „the extents to which results are consistent over time and an accurate representation of the total population under study‟

(2000:1). Kvale (1989:79) similarly states that „reliability is a question of whether repeated investigations of the same phenomenon give a similar result‟. In qualitative research however, particularly under a constructionist paradigm, individuals‟ perceptions are taken to be dynamic rather than static (Golafshani, 2003). Moreover it is recognised that there are likely to be multiple interpretations of phenomena (Golafshani, 2003). In this sense, repeated investigations cannot be expected to yield similar findings.

In the context of qualitative research, Hammersley defines reliability as „the degree of consistency with which instances are assigned to the same category by different observers or by the same observer on different occasions‟ (1992: 67). In the light of this definition Silverman (2009) argues that qualitative researchers should document their procedures to show their audience that their methods were reliable. Here, „detailed data presentations which make minimal inferences are always preferable to researchers‟ presentation of their own (high-inference) summaries of their data‟ (Silverman, 2009: 287). Silverman defines low inference data as long data extracts which include the „question preceding a respondent‟s comments as well as the interviewer‟s continuers‟ (2009: 287). I adhered to Silverman‟s (2009) notion of reliability in this thesis by attaching two detailed interview transcripts to the appendix. These transcripts should give readers insight into the raw material from which I derived my interpretations. Moreover in the data chapters of this thesis I have capitalised data as much as possible by using large chunks of original data rather than little isolated snippets, and provided relevant contextual details. This should help readers gauge how I interpreted my data. As Bryman (1988) notes extended transcripts help the reader make her own interpretations about the topic in concern.

In qualitative interviews, researchers can also ensure reliability by employing co-researchers (see Golafshani, 2003). Co-research involves using several peer researchers to interpret the data to improve the understanding of constructions of others (Johnson, 1997; Golafshani, 2003). Although this process is certainly virtuous it is not possible to use co-researchers in a PhD study. However in my study I discussed my data at length with my PhD supervisor.

These discussions were extremely helpful to gain insight into multiple interpretations of my data.

8.3.2 Validity

In quantitative research validity determines whether the research truly measures what it was intended to measure or how truthful the research results are. In qualitative research validity is

„the extent to which an account accurately represents the social phenomena to which it refers‟

(see Hammersley, 1990: 57). Thus as Silverman (2009) argues qualitative researchers have to convince their readers that their findings are based on investigating all their data rather than parts of it. This is called the problem of „anecdotalism‟ (see Silverman, 2001; 222-3).

Silverman talks about five interrelated ways qualitative researchers can avoid „anecdotalism‟

and aim for valid findings. First he argues that researchers must leave aside initial assumptions about data and „overcome the temptation to jump to easy conclusions just because there is some evidence that seems to lead to an interesting direction‟ (2009: 279).

This implies that the researcher must examine all her data before making interpretations which lead to Silverman‟s (2009) second and third points.

Under the notion of „constant comparison‟ Silverman (2009) argues that researchers should test emerging hypotheses by examining them across all the data, and under the notion of

„comprehensive data treatment‟ he argues that all data should be incorporated into the analysis and generalisations should be applied to all the cases in the relevant category. While the objective of my research study was not to generalise findings across the women in my sample, I adhered to Silverman‟s notions of „comprehensive data treatment‟ and „constant comparison‟ by moving to and fro between the empirical data and examining emerging ideas across each individual data transcript. My motive was to acknowledge exactly how many women in early, mid and late career talked about particular ideas and how many did not.

Since there were only 24 respondents and thus 24 interview transcripts in this study I found it relatively easy to do this.

To give an example, in contrast to other respondents in the study, Diluni blatantly stated that she did not believe in norms of respect to elders and unconditional compliance to them. I noted this unusual occurrence in my thesis rather than ignoring it because it was just one atypical instance. This covers Silverman‟s (2009) fourth point which states that researchers should give the reader an indication of the frequencies of particular occurrences. Indeed I took great effort to demonstrate frequencies of occurrences throughout my thesis, where I have for instance noted exactly how many respondents talked about norms of good behaviour for women in their careers, and how many women stated that extended family members helped them develop their careers. The Nvivo software package which automatically notes frequencies in coding data was very helpful in doing this.

I also investigated the unusual cases further, which covers Silverman‟s (2009) fifth point that researchers should critically investigate deviant cases thoroughly. For instance, in examining Diluni‟s transcript in detail it became clear to me that Diluni had experienced serious troubles from her mother-in-law which appeared to have influenced her to reject notions of respect to elders in Sri Lankan society. I documented this finding in my empirical data. As Diluni‟s case I examined all other deviant cases thoroughly and noted possible explanations for deviance where they were available in the data.