Datos básicos para el estudio de la propagación de la onda de avenida

The first step in this research was to define the context. The words: catastrophe, complexity, chaos, and systems are so commonly used in crisis research that the meaning can become opaque. Establishing a context sets clearer boundaries for the case studies. The research required a substantial survey of the literature that defines the event and the concepts. As would be expected, any inquiry into complexity reveals the interrelation of systems and the role communications plays in self-organization. The review of the literature provided the overall framework: catastrophe is a severe disruption to a large segment of socio-technical systems, communications is a foundational system for self- organizing, and effective response requires restoration of communication systems.

The research for this thesis relies on two case studies (Hurricane Katrina and earthquake in Haiti 2010). These two studies meet the environmental criteria of a catastrophic event complicated by a near total failure of the communications infrastructure. The case studies offer contrasting crisis response models (domestic and international). Though the approach to crisis response is very different, the commonality is a failure to restore a communications system.

The comparative case study method was selected to allow the careful consideration of the qualitative and quantitative data. The studies serve to define the phenomenon in context.177 _{The studies represent a narrative of the effects of a}

catastrophe on complex socio-technical systems, crisis response systems, and communications systems. The overarching consideration is the communications situation presented to converging forces and the efforts made to improve the situation during the initial chaotic period.

The two studies were selected based on several criteria. Catastrophic events are not regularly occurring; thus, the data set is small.

177 _{Robert K. Yin, “The Case Study Crisis: Some Answers,” Administrative Science Quarterly 26, no.}

Case studies criteria:

• Hurricane Katrina and earthquake in Haiti (criteria):

• Both events had access to modern networking technology • Near total failure of the communications infrastructure

• Complex emergency response from substantial numbers of diverse agencies, groups, volunteer entities, non-governmental organizations (NGO)

• Technical challenges comparable

• Well-documented, official reports, after action review (AAR), lessons learned (LL)

• Naval Postgraduate School (NPS) Hastily Formed Network (HFN) deployment

• Different crisis response organizational framework

There has not been a widely embraced or successful solution to rapid reestablishment of communications in the initial chaotic stage of a catastrophic event. The differing framework allows the research to define common problems that are not linked to policy or regional procedures. The deployment of NPS HFN team provides essential data and observations from a specialized unit that is solely tasked with rapid restoration of ICT.

The methodologies used to research the case studies are:

• Assess after action reviews, lessons learned documents, articles, and academic peer-reviewed theses related to the two case studies.

• Examine official documentation for domestic crisis response as it relates to communication strategy

• Determine efficacy of HFN model using deployment reports, after action reviews, and industry related articles.

• Conduct comprehensive review network data from studies on Hurricane Katrina.

The Hurricane Katrina network was evaluated using different data sources utilizing different collection methods (see Appendix A). Three studies pertaining to Hurricane Katrina serve as a basis of the research. The data from three studies were

examined using social network analysis (SNA) tools to confirm the results and to examine specific aspects of the crisis response networks. The studies are:

• Carter Butts, Ryan Acton, and Christopher Marcum’s “Interorganizational Collaboration in the Hurricane Katrina Response” (data publicly available)178

• Louise K. Comfort at the University of Pittsburgh, Center for Disaster Management179

• Naim Kapucu at the Department of Public Administration, University of Central Florida180

The Hurricane Katrina data was kindly provided by the University of Pittsburgh and the University of Central Florida, and the study by Butts, Acton, and Marcum was publically available.

Analysis of the Haiti response network uses studies conducted by the University of Pittsburgh, Center for Disaster Management. Additionally, the research of the Haiti networks was confined to an analysis of the network statistics. This analysis found network evolution and structural similarities.

This framework represents the guiding principles for operations. One of the goals of the thesis is to provide recommendations for future domestic crisis response. For that reason, the research into the domestic crisis response official and mandated organization is probed in a vigorous manner. The UN response to Haiti allows the examination of contrasting organizational and management styles within a similar context and with similar results (as they apply to the rapid establishment of communications systems).

The use of the case studies and empirical data allows the building of a theory.181

The method by this research is a combination of historic narrative of the relevant facts and empirical data analysis using SNA to reveal common patterns in crisis response

178 _{Carter T. Butts, Ryan M. Acton, and Christopher M. Marcum, “Interorganizational Collaboration}

in the Hurricane Katrina Response,” Journal of Social Structures 13 (February 2012): 1–36, https://www.cmu.edu/joss/content/articles/volume13/ButtsActonMarcum.pdf

179 _{Louise F. Comfort, email to author, August 11, 2014.} 180 _{Nail Kapucu, email to author, September 5, 2014.}

181 _{Kathleen M. Eisenhardt, and Melissa E. Graebner, “Theory Building from Cases: Opportunities}

networks. The emergent theory is that chaos can be controlled (perturbations and alterations of orbits) by crisis response. Crisis response requires the creation and implementation of a new communication systems strategy, altering ICS to pursue that strategy and utilizing hastily formed network concepts as well as rapid technology assessment and technology teams.

A goal of this research is to define a serious common problem in crisis response. The examination of shared failures and successes to provide solutions and smart practices for future disaster response. The importance is obvious: greater efficiency in crisis response to limit or decrease humanitarian suffering and economic loss.