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Concept of system

The concept of SES is central to this thesis, which uses a systems approach. But what does ‘system’ mean? Is the term more than a metaphor for a ‘compound of things’ (Becker 2012: 46)? In the literature, there are numerous definitions of what a system is or represents. Opinions differ on how the term ‘system’ ought to be understood; whether systems really exist to be discovered, or whether they are constructed to give meaning to the world, or else some combination of the two.

10 _{For example, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)/United Nations} Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) framework; or the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) and Scientific, Technical and Economic Committee for Fisheries (STECF)/European Commission framework concerning EU fisheries management.

The classical definition of system by Hall and Fagen (1956: 18): ‘A system is a set of objects together with relationships between the objects and between their attributes.’

According to Becker (2012: 48), to become more than just a metaphorical expression, the definition of system requires two additional constraints: (1) the definition of spatial or functional boundaries at different levels; and (2) the identification of patterns between the sets of relationships, expressed as topological structures (e.g. networks, causal chains and feedback loops).

Of course, many definitions of system go beyond the basic Hall and Fagen definition to describe a system by key attributes such as open, dynamic, complex and adaptive. For example, the following descriptive definition of system appears in the SPICOSA (Science and Policy Integration for Coastal Systems Assessment) project11 guide to system design (Tett et al. 2011a: 11, emphases in original):

‘A system:

• consists of parts and relationships or interactions amongst these parts;

• often contains feedback loops which create emergent properties additional to those of the individual parts and relationships;

• has boundaries in space and time, which define system extent and scale;

• has an internal state, which responds to internal dynamics and transboundary processes;

• can contain a hierarchy of sub-systems; emergent properties of one level appear as relationships at the next higher level.’

The notion of wholeness is implicit in the SPICOSA definition. Other systems definitions explicitly identify the whole. For example, in Re-Creating the Corporation, Ackoff (1999: 5-8) proposes a definition that attempts to capture areas of general agreement between numerous other definitions of system in the

11 _{A four-year integrated project (2007-2011) for the sustainable management of coastal zone} systems, funded by the EU’s Sixth Framework Programme (FP6); http://www.spicosa.eu/

literature. ‘A system is a whole that cannot be divided into independent parts without loss of its essential properties or functions’ (Ackoff 1999: 8).

Systems approach

Systems theory, systems science and the systems approach are all essentially methods of shifting from reductionist to holistic patterns of thinking, while acknowledging the unity of reality and the relationships between reality’s components and properties (Strijbos 2010: 453). The origins of this shift towards a holistic paradigm are widely attributed to the pioneering work of theoretical biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1950, 1968, 1972) who formulated the idea of general systems theory (GST).

The systems theory paradigm that emerged in the mid-20th century has since become an important framework for the analysis of persistent and complex problems. Terms such as ‘systems theory’ or ‘systems thinking’ are very general, referring to ‘a universal language to address complex patterns of interaction between different components’ (Loorbach 2007: 54).

Regardless of definitional differences and (implicit) tensions between analytical/ reductionist and synthetic/holistic aspects, the fundamental systems ideas (i.e. components and relationships, parts and wholes, emergent properties, and hierarchy and boundaries) have not changed significantly over the years.

In summary, the systems approach is a process with three complementary aspects. First, it is a fundamental way of perceiving the world (worldview). Second, it is an organised way of thinking that enables individuals and groups to understand and organise information about real-world phenomena. Third, it is a rational way of acting and dealing with the complexity and dynamics of real-world problems.

Complex systems approach

Where social and ecological processes and interactions have become so complex, and the resulting problems and their solutions so complicated, there is a tendency for scientists, policy makers and other stakeholders to embrace the science of complex systems (also known as complex systems theory, complex adaptive

systems theory, complexity theory or complexity science). Indeed, complex systems approaches are increasingly used to bridge the natural and social sciences and integrate the perspectives of different disciplines and sectors. Moreover, a complex systems approach can help with developing three social capabilities considered essential for a successful transition towards sustainability: preparedness to change, capacity to change and options for change (Huitric et al. 2009: 40).

The hallmarks of theoretical approaches to complex systems are their focus on (1) the ways that order (pattern, arrangement, organisation, structure, form and so forth) emerges spontaneously rather than being imposed by design; and (2) the fundamental role of interconnections among components. The concepts of emergence and interconnectedness are essential to understanding how complex systems change over time and under what conditions. These and related concepts have been developed in recent decades to describe and explain the properties of complex systems in a wide variety of fields.

Complex systems are of course ubiquitous in society, nature, science and technology. (For an overview of complex systems see Bar-Yam 1997; Bossomaier and Green 2007 [2000]; Northrop 2011.) Among them, there are complex systems of very different kinds that exhibit the qualities of coherence and persistence in the face of changing conditions. This is because, despite their differences, they each possess the ability to adapt. In other words, they all have the capacity to respond to changes in their environment and make adjustments (small changes), and learn from experience, in order to fit the new conditions. This subset of complex systems is collectively referred to as the complex adaptive systems or CAS (Holland 1995: 4). Having already listed the key properties of CAS in the introduction above, I elaborate on these in the following two sections. Section 2.3 addresses the basic concepts of CAS theory. Section 2.4 deals with the dynamics of CAS.