DATOS DINÁMICOS DE LOS RIESGOS REGISTRADOS EN SUCURSALES EN EL EXTRANJERO

Dipsutational talk transforms collective activity into a competitive action rather than cooperative effort. It consists of unwillingness to adopt or accept the other person’s opinions and embodies short exchanges such as “yes it is- no it isn’t” (Mercer, 2000). This way of talking is “characterised by disagreement and individualised decision making.” (Mercer, 1995, p.104; 1996, 2004, 2007). Positive feedback of the suggestions in a discussion occurs only in limited ways.

3.6.2 Cumulative talk

Cumulative talk is characterised by positive constructions of criticism of the other individuals’ responses. Speakers use talk to mutually and supportively create shared knowledge by accumulation, that is adding information to and building on each other’s contributions (Mercer, 1995; 1996; 2004; 2007). Cumulative conversation features are characterised by repetitions, confirmations and elaborations.

4.6.3 Exploratory talk

The third analytic category of talk is exploratory talk which can be defined as a critical but constructive engagement with each others’ views during discourse (Mercer, 1995; 1996; 2004; 2007). Mercer (2000) stated that through exploratory talk,

“Relevant information is offered for joint consideration. Proposals may be challenged and counter-challenged, but if so no reasons are given and alternatives are offered. Agreement is sought as a basis for joint progress. Knowledge is made publicly accountable and reasoning is visible in the talk”

Through this type of talk, children can reach an agreement before deciding to take joint action while their way of thinking is made explicit and their talk enables critical evaluations and collective conclusions (Mercer, 2000). Exploratory talk is a type of language that is important in the educational context (Mercer et al. 1999). It can be considered as an “educated” way of learning development through the medium of talk which is enhanced through school activities (Mercer et al. 1999).

Mercer (2010) note that by raising children’s awareness of the uses of spoken language as a means of thinking both together and individually, as well as enabling them to apply language successfully to their study of any subject, will enhance their learning development and way of thinking. Engaging exploratory talk is considered to be the most dynamic way of using language to foreground reasoning. More precisely, this talk enables relevant information to be shared, all members’ contributions are respected and all views and statements are carefully measured; any dispute is avoided and the group seeks mutual agreement before any decision is taken (Mercer, 2010). Critical and positive engagement with each other’s’ opinions, by offering their own reasons and views, can enable students to achieve a type of joint reasoning. Such an effective way of using language should be encouraged in education by educationists. The research presented here focuses on what occurs within the classrooms especially when children form a dialogic interaction to solve a pedagogic task. Exploratory talk enables creative contributions to the sense-making by each individual which can be synthesised through discussions and finally offer the most useful explanation and enhance understanding (Mercer, 2000).

4.7 Levels of Analysis

Mercer (2004) stated that this categorisation of talk is a useful tool for analysing talk in learning contexts. Thus, to analyse talk which is used in any joint cultural activity it is essential to include the types of talk that have been mentioned by analysing them based in three levels: the linguistic level, the psychological and the cultural.

The linguistic level is used to study talk as spoken text and examine the content and function of talk as well as its structure. At this level disputational talk is typified by assertions, cumulative talk is characterised by repetitions and elaborations while the exploratory talk is expressed with questions for clarifications and answers which offer explanations (Mercer, 1995; 1996). The psychological level of talk is used for analysing talk as thought and action (Mercer, 1995; 1996). The way individuals cooperate, the relation of the topics chosen for conversations with their personal interests as well as to what extent thinking is developed through talk are the main analytical concerns at this level. At this level, disputational talk operates in a competitive level and no shared opinion is developed, while cumulative talk is characterised by solidarity and constant repetition of ground rules so that the different views of the speakers are confirmed and utilised. Cumulative, as well as exploratory talk, operate in a compromised dialogic context and aim to achieve common agreement. Moreover, at this level, the exploratory talk promotes reasoning through the consideration of the views of all speakers and the evaluation of all statements until explicit agreement is achieved before taking actions and decisions (Mercer, 1996).

The third level talk is the cultural level which examines the educational value of talk and it involves the close observation of the nature of talk that is used and also valued within the boundaries of school (Mercer, 1995; 1996). Exploratory talk is the most important analytic category at this level because of its accountability, clarity, constructive criticism and acceptance of arguments which are necessary and highly valued in the educational setting. This level is relevant and has analytic importance for this research and will be discussed in the data analysis chapter.

4.8 Educational importance

The role of teachers in fostering specific types of talk is important since they can support children and help them to utilise language for specific functions in certain ways so that they gain access to educated discourse (Mercer, 1995). It has been established that education should focus on introducing to students ways of using language as a means of exchanging, finding and constructing knowledge (Mercer et al. 1999). Van Lier (1988) stated that teachers, who aim for the development of cognitive language learning, use questions as a method of teaching, so that students do a lot of thinking, with the intention that this method will result in more language and learning development. However, some answers may by short and simple questions may offer long answers. Cognitive development cannot be measured in terms of the amount of language production (Van Lier, 1988). Teachers should introduce children into the ways language can be used for collective thinking in the educational context (Mercer, 2004). In relation to this, teachers have to offer explicit support to their students on how to use language for sharing and constructing knowledge by guiding them in

conversational interactions and explaining the purposes of certain activities. Teachers have the responsibility to create the foundations for new meaning based on prior learning through the use of the most important tool that is language (Mercer, 2000). Language as a cultural tool can only be applied after the teacher’s appropriate guidance which will foster intellectual development.

4.9 Research Questions

My fourth main research question aroused from the literature is comprised by two subquestions. The main research is the following:

4. Does translanguaging support communication particularly “exploratory talk”? 4.1What types of talk were evidenced in the classroom during discussions?

4.10 Conclusion

This chapter presents Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory about language as a tool for learning and highlighted the important role that people play in helping children to learn. The Vygotskian approach is the key theoretical concept which will enable the interpretation of the data of this research by trying to examine whether the relationship between the social and the cultural meaning making can lead to individual understanding always through the use of language as a tool for learning and thinking. This chapter examined relevant literature about the ways students in mainstream classrooms use language to generate common understandings through guidance and support by a knowledgeable other or/and via collective work in the classroom.