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The compositional techniques common to other media such traditional art or film including the structure the position and motion of cameras and the framing that this affords are utilised by game designers (Birn, 2006). However, within a video games context, it is often not easy to specifically compose a precise image unless the segment of the game takes place as a video sequence or similar cut scene. At all other times, when the player is in control, the designer is forced to take into account the fact that the player is in motion, can be crouching, standing, walking or even jumping and then have to compensate for a dynamically moving camera. For these reasons, it is uncommon for game designers to adhere strictly to these rules.

1.10.18.1 FRAMING AND ARCHES

A compositional technique used to draw both the eye of the player and in turn, the player’s motion is the use of framing. Often combined with changes in contrast, where the brighter area beyond the frame gives the viewer a natural guide. These techniques are used extensively in video games. Framing of this nature can be created by objects, both natural and architectural, can highlight important new scenes or objects and combined with lighting can offer strongly contrasting points of interest. In the development of Uncharted 2 (Naughty Dog, 2009), the designers specifically utilised the shapes that objects such as trees make to create arches, their assumption being that players have a natural tendency to be drawn through apparently natural portals (Pangilinan, 2010). Figure 81.

Figure 81. Examples of arches and natural framing in The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim (Bethesda Game Studios, 2011) [left] Uncharted 2 (Naughty Dog, 2009) [middle and right]

1.10.18.2 NEGATIVE SPACE

The term negative space usually refers to the space between or surrounding the focal point(s) of a composition. Use of negative space in a games scene can form a non-specific guide to the player for instance in the image below. The tunnel walls and the detritus on the ground provide guiding concentric rings and guiding lines that draw the eye to the centre of the image. The midpoint of the image holds no specific information for the player, this being obscured by the use of depth fogging. However, this use of negative space still draws the player along the tunnel. Limbo,

(Playdead, 2010) uses negative space extensively, where the foreground is in silhouette with the exception of key elements such as the main character’s eyes. Figure 82.

Figure 82. Examples of negative space in Left 4 Dead (Valve Corporation, 2007) and Limbo (Playdead, 2010)

1.10.18.3 GUIDING LINES AND CAMERA ANGLES

One of the more commonly used compositional techniques used in traditionally produced art is the use of subtle lines that guide the viewer toward a focal point in an image; invariably this focal point will also be an area of high contrast. As it can be seen in the illustration below [Figure 83], the lines along the edge of the path as well as the flow of leaves in the trees curve gracefully towards the central figure. The figure itself is darker than the lighter fogging behind it and is drawn further forward by both the contrasting red against blue as well as a deeper saturation of colouring between the figure and the pale grey-blue/green background.

These self-same techniques are used throughout all visual media from photography to film to video games. Video games unlike pre-composed media such as film require that the guiding lines work in conjunction with the position of the camera. As can be seen in the image below [Figure 84] from Uncharted 4 (Naughty Dog, 2016), the scene has been specifically crafted to make the goal extremely distinct. The narrow wall that the character approaches the area from allows for the precise focus of the camera. The lighting against the goal is bright and distinct; there is an area of bright and contrasting colour in the form of a red flag in a predominantly muted brown/green scene. Lines including a conveniently positioned affordance of the telegraph wire point directly at the goal. Should the player be too keen to simply take a running jump at the goal, the level designers have also incorporated a small barrier that breaks the direction of movement while still emphasising by shadow and contrast the correct path to take.

Figure 84. Example of guiding lines implemented in Uncharted 3 (Naughty Dog, 2011)

Good camera positioning and framing in modern video games are not accidental; early 3D video games made many mistakes with camera positioning. For instance, confusing the player by flattening 3D surfaces consisting of uniformly lit repeating textures. Figure 85. In Tomb Raider (Core Design 1996) it was possible to not only lose the sight of the space in front of the player avatar but to lose sight of the avatar herself as she ran behind walls and other geometry.

Figure 85. Camera movement issues occluding the player character in Tomb Raider (Core Design 1996)

In Resident Evil (Capcom, 1996), due to the use of static cameras, it was possible due to poor camera positioning to either lose track of the character or to have the character attacked by a previously unseen opponent. Resident Evil also repeatedly broke the 180-degree rule of cinematography by switching to the opposite side of an imaginary wall; leading to navigational confusion for the players (Hvorup, 2016). Figure 86.

1.10.18.4 CAMERA MOTION AS A NAVIGATIONAL CUE

Beyond cameras simply tracking the player, a technique that is commonly used in third person perspective titles where the camera follows behind the player’s avatar is a spline based camera motion that is triggered at a particular location. This is an intrinsic cue, as it does not break the gameplay; it simply shifts the camera angle during normal play to allow emphasis to be placed on the structure and layout of the scene. This emphasis offering visual clues as to where to proceed. The first game to implement this technique was The Legend of Zelda: The Ocarina of Time (Nintendo, 1998), but this is perhaps best exemplified by the dramatic and precise use of camera motion in Ico (Sony Interactive Entertainment, 2001). Figure 87.

Figure 87. Early examples of dynamic camera motion that indicates the direction of navigation. The Legend of Zelda: The Ocarina of Time (Nintendo, 1998) [left] and Ico (Sony Interactive Entertainment, 2001)

[right]