The capability of marginalised households to control their political environment is constrained by the lack of participation in the procedures of MSES governance. Those households able to participate in resource management processes were found to have inherent capabilities to adapt to complex social and ecological circumstances (cf. Adger et al., 2004). For example, successful aquaculture farmers ‘participated’ in MSES governance by lobbying local governments in order to block decisions that would negatively impact aquaculture productivity, such as the development of dams or irrigation infrastructure. Marginalised households were unable to participate in these processes due to lack of recognition within the political community and inadequate access to resources (such as economic, information, networks, and education). Such a lack of participation is disempowering and undermined their capabilities. The extent to which households have the right to be heard is shaped by institutional processes, which is a crucial component of adaptive capacity and shapes how households choose to respond to MSES change (Jones et al., 2010). Significant asymmetries in wealth and power produced large divergence in household capabilities. The lack of participation of marginalised households subverted environmental justice through procedures that misrecognised these households and caused unequal distribution in adaptive capacity. The capabilities component of justice thus reveals the interdependence of distribution, procedure and recognition (Schlosberg, 2007). Identifying and responding to institutional processes occurring at multiple levels of MSES governance that shape household capabilities is central to the formation of adaptive capacity (Armitage, 2008). Holland (2008) suggests that ecological systems have the capacity to sustain the conditions that enable capabilities. Hence, it is vital to consider how MSES connect the environmental impacts of divergent socio-economic groups, as these connections increasingly bring benefits to the wealthy and powerful at the expense of those from marginalised groups who are already vulnerable.
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By analysing aspects of MSES change and the factors that shape livelihoods, social capital and institutional structures and processes, findings highlight the importance of considering how these interacting elements have shaped the environmental justice aspects of adaptive capacity. This study highlights important justice aspects of communities, such as inequality, discrimination and incapability, that point to divergence in adaptive capacity within communities, and which should be considered within environmental governance more widely.
Using a livelihood approach that provides a time dimension to analyses of household uses of MSPG, this study shows how household characteristics and the different points in time as aquaculture develops within the same local context shape the distribution of adaptive capacity within MSES. Results demonstrate that the increasing influence of market mechanisms creates inequity in the distribution of adaptive capacity. Pre-existing social, economic and political settings have meant that households able to access a wider range of resources (i.e. finance, labour, skills, networks and markets) have been able to take advantage of transition processes to establish successful aquaculture farms. The subsequent inequality in income has reinforced pre-existing power structures. These households are less dependent on the natural functions and processes supporting the provision of mangrove system goods to respond to change, and more concerned with altering these natural processes in order to respond to market dynamics external to the community. However, more marginalised households depend greatly on the natural provision of mangrove system goods for their livelihoods and to respond to change. Income inequality and the concentration of wealth among a few successful aquaculture farmers has directed the flow of resources to these households with a focus towards adapting to external market demands rather than local livelihood needs. This has diverted resources away from marginalised households and contributed to the degradation and loss of mangrove systems necessary for the livelihoods of these households. The inequitable distribution of adaptive capacity and the benefits and burdens of MSES change has implications for environmental justice. Marginalised households that are unable to take advantage of the opportunities presented by aquaculture are unduly burdened with the negative impacts of MSES change. Mangrove system degradation and loss reduces a crucial livelihood option for these households, locking them into vulnerable trajectories, whilst at the same time, these households contributed least to the degradation.
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Using an approach to assess the impact of aquaculture on livelihoods and social networks, this study illustrated how these interacting elements shape the recognition of various groups in the governance processes that influence adaptive capacity. Wealthy households gain recognition in the novel governance networks focussed on external market forces at the expense of more marginalised households unable to access the resources necessary to establish aquaculture. Results demonstrate the influence of market mechanisms on social capital and levels of recognition among the MSES governance processes that shape adaptive capacity, with implications for environmental justice. Communities with less market influence are associated with stronger bonding social capital which: increases adaptive capacity through greater network connectedness and redundant ties; reduces adaptive capacity through smaller and dense networks that lack of access to external resource. Conversely, communities with greater levels of market influence are associated with weaker bridging social capital which: increases adaptive capacity through access to resources external to the community; reduces adaptive capacity through lower redundancy in network ties. Discrimination due to socio-economic identity and difference affects the recognition component of environmental justice in adaptive capacity. Communities with greater aquaculture activity and market influence are associated with more fractionalised communities based on the socio-economic characteristics. Consolidator households have been able to increase their adaptive capacity by using their influence, power, and access to MSES governance networks in order to develop successful aquaculture ventures. This further increases their adaptive capacity through greater affiliation and influence in MSES governance networks. Conversely, marginalised households that lack access to MSES governance networks have been unable to take advantage of the opportunities presented by aquaculture, losing adaptive capacity through becoming less affiliated with rapidly changing MSES governance networks.
Using an institutional approach that provides insights into the ability of households to gain legitimate access to MSPG, this study shows how institutional structures and processes at and among the macro and meso levels (i.e. international, national and local) have shaped adaptive capacity through MSPG entitlements at the micro level (i.e. household). This study demonstrates how the increasing influence of market mechanisms has shaped the MSES governance procedures, creating and maintaining inequity in distribution and recognition related to the environmental justice aspects of adaptive capacity. Transitional reforms implemented within weak formal institutional settings mean
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that aquaculture has developed more rapidly than the institutional processes required for sustainable development to occur can respond. This process has increased the adaptive capacity of consolidator groups who have been able to capture the benefits of reforms through pre-existing power structures to establish successful aquaculture farms. The subsequent concentration of wealth has diverted resources toward this group at the expense of marginalised households. The loss of adaptive capacity for marginalised households has resulted from endowment loss through mangrove system degradation and loss, and entitlement failure through institutionalised limitations on the opportunities and rights to access MSPG. The institutional structures and processes that create divergent MSPG entitlements have implications for the procedural component of environmental justice in adaptive capacity. A one-party state system, combined with a lack of civil society and restricted media, means there is a lack of participation, accountability, and avenue for recourse within MSES governance processes. There is a lack of capability of marginalised households to participate in the political processes of MSES governance. This creates and sustains the unjust and inequitable distribution and recognition within the governance processes that shape adaptive capacity within MSES.
Building on the findings from the three objectives, this study shows that the rapid growth of aquaculture subsequent to transition is the key aspect of MSES change. Communities with greater aquaculture activity are associated with divergent socio-economic groups (i.e. consolidator, accumulator and marginalised) that are adapting to different sets of drivers, i.e. external (markets) and internal (mangrove system dynamics) to the community. Successful aquaculture farmers adapt to market forces that exist beyond the immediate community, and are thus becoming increasingly detached from the mangrove system resource base (Figure 7.1). Those with limited access to resources are able to gain employment on aquaculture farms are adapting to labour market demands, while also remaining somewhat dependent on MSPG to supplement their livelihoods (Figure 7.2). However, marginalised groups with severely limited access to resources remain highly dependent on MSPG and adapt to the daily dynamics of mangrove system functions and processes. They do this by diversifying their livelihoods and using networks comprised of strong bonding social capital to access the necessary resources (i.e. finance, labour, food) to respond to change (Figure 7.3). That groups within MRDC are adapting to different sets of drivers has implications for environmental justice. The concentration of resources among a small number of successful aquaculture farmers results in their ability to gain
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control of resources which they employ to enable them to adapt to external domestic and international market forces, e.g. by cutting down mangrove trees to establish farms, modifying the landscape to increase the productivity of aquaculture farms, or modifying fields to maintain productivity during environmental changes. This has a negative impact on the livelihoods of those households that remain dependent of MSPG from mangrove system commons, either as a supplement or as the main livelihood activity, by reducing the livelihood options available to them. Furthermore, these households have been unable to establish aquaculture farms and hence have contributed least to the negative environmental impacts. They are bearing the undue burden of the negative impacts of MSES change and face reduced capacity to adapt to future MSES change.
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Figure 7.2: Link between adaptive capacity and environmental justice regarding accumulator group
Figure 7.3: Link between adaptive capacity and environmental justice regarding marginalised groups
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Key themes emanating from a synthesis of the results point to divergence in communities. Consolidator households (Figure 7.1) are being driven by external market factors and marginalised households (Figure 7.3) being driven by internal mangrove system factors, and the subsequent ways these interact with each other through their use of resources. This is not something that has been discussed in the literature and is a new way of thinking about adaptive capacity. This new way of thinking comes about through using an environmental justice lens to understand adaptive capacity within social-ecological systems.