Voces y pensamientos de la mujer durante el proceso de creación
4. Discusión: Las voces de las mujeres en la separación
4.1 A defender el proyecto
The effect of erosion on crop productivity has been recognised and studied for relationships are still not well
y
which crop yield responds to soil erosion depends on
root growth hindrance by clayey
5
(Erosion Hazard)
about 50 years. However, erosion productivity
understood (National Soil Erosion‐ Soil Productivity Research Planning Committee, 1981).
Soil erosion leads to a reduction in soil qualit and productivity and hence crop yield. The extent to
several variables such as crop type, soil properties, management practices and climate characteristics. Erosion often results in a decrease of the soil supply functions in three several ways, by (1) the removal of organic matter; (2) the change in depth to a possible root‐barrier; and (3) the loss of structure and increased compaction (Bakker et al, 2004)
The three main factors reported in pervious studies that are thought to be responsible for crop yield reduction are (a)
subsoil or by a pan or bedrock, (b) water deficit and (c) nutrient deficit. Some other literature also notes other limiting factors such as soil temperature, pH and aeration (Larney et al, 1995; Mielke and Schepers, 1985; Mohkma and Sietz,
1992), but these are never reported as being the dominant control on crop yield reduction due to erosion. The relationships between the erosion processes and the main factors are described briefly below.
If crop growth is sensitive to drought, then it is likely that water deficit following erosion will become a factor behind yield reduction. With topsoil
a factor of yield reduction when the fertilizer is applied. Nutrients are
ance to root growth starts as soon as a
include rare freezing; hot summers with at least two to three dry months and removal, water availability is affected by three processes: (a) soil depth decrease, reducing soil water storage capacity; (b) loss of soil structure due to reduction in organic matter and increased compaction, which reduces the soil water holding capacity (Daiz‐Zorita et al, 1999; Larson et al, 1985); (c) the exposure of more clayey soil material at the surface, which has a detrimental effect on the extent to which soil moisture is available to plants. Topsoil removal may often result in a nutrient deficit. In the absence of sufficient fertilizer application, a shortage of nutrients will cause a rapid decline in crops yield.
If the top soil clay content increases because of erosion, nutrients may still become
often strongly absorbed on to clay particles, which can lead to reduced nutrient availability (Rhoton and Lindbo, 1997).
Erosion may also cause physical hindrance to root growth, for example, when a clayey subsoil is present. Physical hindr
significant part of the root system encounters the restricting horizon. Where growth is hindered by bedrock or a pan, yields will rapidly approach zero once the minimum soil requirements for rooting are exceeded by soil removal (National Soil Erosion – Soil Productivity Research Planning Committee, 1981). According to Sevink (1988), accelerated soil erosion is a serious problem in the Mediterranean region. Climatic characteristics of the Mediterranean region
cool rainy winters; precipitation often falls as storms of high intensity which produce torrential runoff (Bradbury, 1981). Because of these violent storms, the Mediterranean climate is described as one of the most aggressive in respect of erosion. Also, in regions such as the southern Mediterranean, cracks can form by desiccation during dry summers, causing extreme dissection of the slopes. A major problem in the climate in this region is that the winter rainfall, which causes erosion, does not coincide with the vegetation cover that protects the soil surface, especially in cultivated cropland and heavily grazed pasture. The
ity can produce run off. The removal of natural vegetation from
been two major studies in Libya and on the study Mediterranean climates do not favour the development of a dense vegetation cover on most slopes, which are poorly stabilised at ground level. As a result, areas with Mediterranean type climates are traditionally classified as areas with high potential erosion rates (Vita‐Finzi, 1959; Saunders and Young, 1983; Brown, 1990)
In the study area, where the environment is vulnerable, the variability of rainfall and the occurrence of occasional relatively‐heavy showers characterised by high intens
the land surface is the main factors that accelerate soil erosion. The combination of these factors in addition to the topography has increased the rate of soil erosion by water in this area.
There have been some studies dealing with the influence of soil on agriculture potential, but the problem of soil erosion is mentioned only briefly in some pilot studies. However, there have
area. The first was a report by FAO (1959) made by a team of experts using the available information on water resources to advise on measures for development of water resources and water conservation in northern Cyrenaica (north‐east of Libya).
The second study was conducted by Selkhozpromexport (1980). It concluded that the north‐east of Libya is subject to severe erosion. The most affected area
is to
he determinants of
Area (1000 ha)
represents 70.7 % of the north‐east. Selkhozpromexport (1980) distinguished two types of accelerated erosion: water erosion and wind erosion. Water erosion is common in the form of sheet washing, occurring mainly within the Jabal Akhdar Upland while wind erosion is found in the form of deflation within the littoral plain (Selkhozpromexport, 1980; Mahmoud, 1995). Table (5‐ 22) shows the size of the problem in Libya and especially in the study area. The FAO (1976, 1983) list erosion hazard as a land quality which should be included in land evaluation. The objective of erosion hazard assessment identify those areas of land where the maximum sustained productivity from land use is threatened by excessive soil loss (Morgan, 1995).
The FAO (1983) state that the most satisfactory methods of erosion hazard assessment are based on predicted soil losses by modelling t
climate, soil erodibility, slope, and vegetation factors. Detailed steps are given in the FAO documents to rate the suitability for erosion hazard whichever method or model is used for calculation of estimated soil losses (FAO, 1983).
Table 5. 22 Water erosion in Libya
Erosion Type North West Region North East Region
Sheet Erosion Slight 155.5 241.7 Moderate 154.5 41.7 Severe 54.5 1.7 Gully Erosion Slight 85.3 0.8 Moderate 73.0 0.0 Severe 57.0 0.0 Total Erosion 511 285.7
Source: (Selkhozpromexport, 1980; Mahmoud and Sluman, 1988)
Rates o vary oss the landscape a n within a small field. variability and changes in land use also cause these rates to vary over
transfers technology from the researcher
g the most important factors and the thorough use of
sult greater emphasis is being placed on
SA to predict long term average annual
f soil erosion acr nd eve
Climate
time. Therefore direct measurement of soil erosion is always problematic. Consequently, the magnitude of erosion, the areas of excessive erosion and the projection of long‐term changes in crop production caused by soil erosion, can often only be estimated (Foster, 1988). Prediction methods of soil erosion were described by Foster (1988) as a package of scientific knowledge that effectively to the user. A model is a method of predicting soil loss under a wide range of conditions (Morgan, 1985). Three types of models can be identified: black box, grey box and white box. Most of the models used in soil erosion studies are the empirical grey‐box type. They are based on definin
observation, measurement, experiments, and statistical techniques, relating them to soil losses (Morgan, 1995).
In recent years significant advances have been made in the understanding of the mechanics of erosion. As a re
developing white‐box and physically‐based models. Hudson (1995) classifies the models into four different models: empirical or black‐box models; process‐ based or physically based models; productivity models and watershed models. A description of the models and their theoretical background can be found in Morgan (1995) and Hudson (1995).
The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) is the most widely known erosion model. Originally developed in U
erosion under various types of crop management system, it has been widely used elsewhere. The USLE is an empirical model developed from analysis of more than 10,000 plot‐years of runoff and soil loss data from small plots
scattered through the USA (Wischmeier and Smith, 1971; 1978). More process‐ based hillslope models have been developed since then.
WEPP (Water Erosion Prediction Project) is a process‐oriented model, based on modern hydrological and erosion science, designed to replace USLE for the
ion (Quinton and
of the model which are designed to estimate soils
se and thus requires less data. Integrating the model with GIS facilitates data manipulation, data input and output display. Most routine assessment of soil erosion by organisations involved in soil and water conservation and environmental planning and assessment.
EUROSEM (European Soil Erosion Model) is an example of the European effort to develop more process‐based models of rainfall eros
Rickson, 1994; Morgan, 1995). However, these process‐based models have data and computer requirements that cause difficulties when efforts are made to apply them beyond the small catchment scale. Data constraints mean that, for practical purposes, the USLE provides the basis for modelling rainfall erosion in catchments (Kinnell, 1998).
Hudson (1995) and Morgan (1995) stressed the importance of identifying the exact objectives and purpose
erosion (Wischmeier and Smith, 1971; 1978). Morgan (1995) further clarifies this by stating that when selecting a model, care needs to be taken to avoid misuse by applying it to conditions beyond those of the database from which it was derived, and data being attracted to sophisticated schemes for which data input is difficult to obtain or which have not been properly validated. Despite the present state of development in physical‐based models, a simple empirical models is often more successful in predicting soil erosion than a complex physically‐based one which is difficult to operate and has been only partially evaluated (Morgan, 1995).
The USLE model is a statistical model and is a relatively simple erosion model, which is easy to parameteri
importantly, GIS spatial display and analysis utilities allow the USLE model to be applied to individual raster cells. Another advantage of the GIS USLE approach is its ability to predict soil loss over large areas due to the interpolation capabilities of GIS (Lufafa et al., 2003).
The USLE and GIS have been used in Kenya to map and quantify soil erosion to help plan soil conversation strategies at the regional level (Mati et al, 2000). The study shows that in a GIS environment the USLE can be applied to determine
major river in the basin (Mati et al, 2000).
lerable soil loss (T) has been defined (McCormack and Young, 1981) as e maximum level of soil erosion that will permit a high level of crop roductivity to be maintained economically and indefinitely. The T‐value is field‐scale soil loss both quantitatively and spatially, and to predict erosion hazard over large watersheds.
In the Kenyan study, the soil loss values estimated by the USLE were considered realistic after comparison with plot data, reconnaissance surveys and sediment yield from the
Fistikoglu and Harmancioglu (2002) concluded that the result of the study shows that GIS permits more effective and accurate application of the USLE model for small watersheds provided that sufficient spatial data are available. In this study the USLE and GIS used to assess the erosion hazard in the study area.
• Tolerable soil loss rates (T) The to
th p
operationally defined in terms of the long‐term averaged annual soil losses estimated with the USLE and is normally applicable to the agriculture field. It is a value based on renewal due to soil formation rates, as well as replenishment of fertility from added organic matter. Guide values of T have been developed
in the USA which has been adopted by many other researches for the assessment of erosion hazard.
Knowledge of the T‐value for a particular soil is important in the application of the USLE. The maximum T‐value of 11.2 t ha‐1 yr‐1 (McCormack and Young
perate regions. In Kenya, Dunne et al, (1978)
es that the soil loss which can be tolerated in south
by G.E.F.L.E in Tunisia. Murad
,1981) was adopted in the USA for permeable medium‐textured soils in well managed cropland where the A horizon is estimated to develop at about this rate. This rate of soil formation is much faster than the rate at which parent materials weather to form soil.
In the semi‐arid and arid environment of Libya the soil formation rate is at a lower rate than those in tem
estimated soil formation rates of 0.125 t ha‐1 yr‐1 with 0.18‐ 0.3 t ha‐1 yr‐1 for the
humid areas. Barber (1982) observed that in Kenya, the T‐value would have to be lower than those in USA and that even with a T‐value of 6.7 ton ha‐1 yr‐1, soil
depth will still be lowered.
Bertoni. et al, (1958) suggest that the tolerable rate of erosion is less than 4.5 t ha‐ 1 yr‐1 in Brazil. Lal (1976) stat
west Nigeria ranged from 0.05 ‐ 2 ton ha‐1 yr‐1.
G.E.F.L.E (1975) suggest that tolerable soil loss in the Gebel Akhdar ranges from 2.5 to 5 ton ha‐1 yr‐1. Similar values are quoted
(1997) states that soil loss in the Hamama region in the Gebel Akhdar were 1.62 and 4.14 t ha‐1 yr‐1 for the first year and second years of his study, respectively.
Results from the study area of this reserach and similar regions indicate that soil loss is less than 2.5 ton ha‐1 yr‐1. When the soil loss rate exceeds this value
the soil crop yield decreases. Selkhozpromexport (1980) confirmed these figures. These figures derived from previous plots observed in the study area.
Table 5.23 shows the suitability ratings for soil loss. However, these figures should be used with caution. There is a need for further work in the study area to confirm these figures or to reach accurate values.
Table 5. 23 Suitability classes for erosion hazard
Suitability Classes Potential Soil Loss
(ton h-1 yr -1) S1 0- 2 S2 >2 - 5 S3 >5 - 7 NS > 7