Bot flies (Order Diptera, family Oestridae) and warble flies (Hypoderma tarandi) in woodland caribou were reported by study participants (Appendix 1, Table 12). It is unclear whether there is a health risk for woodland caribou infected with a parasite. There is speculation that parasite infections result in significant weight loss, reduction in pregnancy, and shifting migration patterns to avoid infections from adjacent ungulate species that share the parasite (Hughes et al. 2009). Despite this recent report another paradigm suggests mortality of the host does not benefit the parasite, and this is based on the evolutionary relationship between parasite and host, (Slansky 2006). Participants also indicated that certain parts of the anatomy may not be eaten if woodland caribou have fly larvae and other parasitic worms are visible. Ticks were observed, but participants indicated that they were not abundant. Moose have so many ticks, that they will lose their hair. It is unclear why ticks affect moose more then woodland caribou, but it could be a result of their habitat preference (Hughes et al. 2009). Cancer and poisoning were also reported and could be the result of some type of industrial pollution. Although there were some health concerns, most people indicated that the health of the woodland caribou was good.
4.4.2 Woodland caribou movements
The movements of woodland caribou tend to be less predictable compared to historical reports (Appendix 1, Table 13a & 13b). Areas where woodland caribou are expected to be at certain times of the year are no longer reliable predictions. No speculation was made by the participants. Based on previous studies the changes can be the result of increasing predation, lack of safe corridors (changes to the landscape), or caribou are simply shifting their locations (Rettie and Messier 2000; Rettie and Messier 2001). It is also important to note that woodland caribou need access to ice on the lakes in winter months (Rettie and Messier 2000).
4.4.3 Food and food quality
Four important food sources were reported: lichen and moss, brush, and muskeg water (Appendix 1, Table 14). Previous research suggests lichens are the primary food source (Rettie et al. 1997; Johnson et al. 2001). The quality of food sources for woodland caribou was reported as diminishing, either due to low quality because of disturbance or overgrazing by woodland caribou. As food of the woodland caribou is limited in certain areas (slow growing and slow to regenerate), access to mineral rich water is a significant part of their behaviour and diet in spring. One key informant (someone that did not participate in the interviews), mentioned that woodland caribou in the winter time are found to lick the salt. The limited availability of habitats and quality of the food sources can have an impact on behaviour of woodland caribou. Limitations in food or food quality for woodland caribou can lead to potentially risky behaviours in winter that can
4.4.4 Calving
Although calves of woodland caribou were not observed, a number of habitat types for calving were described, based on local knowledge of tracks and other signs (Appendix 1, Table 15). Three contributing factors might account for the lack of calf sightings. First, people may not able to observe woodland caribou during the calving season, which is thought to occur in April-May-June. At this time of the year, most places are inaccessible by land due to melting snow and unsafe ice conditions. Second, traditional teachings do not permit people to go into areas where calves are born, out of respect. Third, woodland caribou calves are so camouflaged, that people may be in calving areas but are unable detect them.
Woodland caribou calving locations and related movements in certain areas is still poorly understood in this area. The movements and behaviour and habitat selection can be the result of environmental factors and females disassociating from other females to reduce calf mortality (Rettie and Messier 2001). Therefore, when looking at the size of the areas that were indicated as woodland caribou calf locations, the ranges were very large and most likely included several females and their calves (Figure 5).
4.4.5 Habitat selection
Based on the report about habitats, woodland caribou need access to water (Appendix 1, Table 16). All of the reported habitat types, except for jack-pine stands, were near water muskegs and lakes. Water is important to woodland caribou for escaping heat, insects and predators. Forest cover such as peatlands may be a secondary habitat
preference (Rettie and Messier 2000); primary habitat preferences include locations close to water or particular water bodies (Figure 5).
4.4.6 Population trends
Overall, reported caribou population trends suggest that people are observing fewer numbers of woodland caribou now than in the past (Appendix 1, Table 17). In most cases, population levels were indicated to be extirpated or declining. Many of those interviewed, in their life time, have observed a severe woodland caribou population crash. The loss of woodland caribou from areas is due to a combination of factors such as logging activity (Rettie and Messier 1998), calf predation and lower recruitment (Rettie and Messier 1998), hunters (Trottier 1988) and forest fires up to 25 years post fire (Fisher and Wilkinson 2005). Even with a small increase in the number of woodland caribou, people are optimistic that they will once again see the great herds from their childhood. The elders‟ belief is that low number of woodland caribou is part of the natural cycle, and the large herds will return.