Delito de riesgo concreto y de riesgo abstracto.

For the Japanese companies he found the following features:

1) Life-time employment 2) Collective responsibility,and 3) Non-specialized career path.

Ouchi, however, found that most American firms did not use the common American approaches, but rather used modified approaches that picked the best approaches of the Japanese model (J) as well as aspects of American (A) where cultural factors determined the practice of these firms, which included long term employment, individual responsibility together with collective decision making.

In view of his findings, Ouchi recommended that both the Japanese and American models would lead to sound competition and successful business.

IMPORTANCE OF THEORY Z

Theory Z has gained some ground among organizational experts and business managers for example, Chrysler and Mead Merchants of America.

However, theory Z has not been emphasized in TVE management literature in Nigeria.

One way of introducing theory Z to TVE in particular and tertiary and educational institutions, generally, is to study the best practices in education outside Nigeria and integrate such practicesin our curricula.

The general reservation about theory Z is that in spite of its popularity, the research method used by Ouchi stands generally questioned (Certo, 1986).

SELF ASSESSMENT TESTS 1. Summarise Ouch’s theoryZ 2. How did he arrive at this theory

3.6 MANAGEMENT EXCELLENCE

Management excellence is another theory which was propounded in the 1980s by Thomas J. Peters and Robert H. Waterman. Their concern was based on the assumption that if a manager was to be effective, he/she must understand how the four management functions, namely, planning, organizing, influencing and controlling, must be practiced, and not just how they should be defined.

The two studied a number of American organizations such as Frito-Lay, Digital Equipment, and 1BM and Walt Disney productions for several years.

They eventually concluded from their studies that the managers of those organizations had eight attributes in common. The eight attributes which are listed below can be found in their book “In Search of Excellence” (1982) are produced below:

ATTRIBUTES EXPLANATIONS

1 A bias for action A preference for doing

something rather than sending questions through several cycles of analyses and

Committee reports.

2 Staying close to the customer Breaking the corporation into small companies

and encouraging them to think

independently andcompetitively 3 Autonomy and entrepreneurship Learning the customer’s

preferences and catering for them

4 Productivity through people Creating in all employees the awareness that their best efforts are essential and that they will share in the rewards of the company’s success.

5 Hands-on value drive Insisting that executives keep in touch with the

firm’s essential business 6 Slick to the knitting Remaining with the business

the company knows best 7 Simple arm lean staff Few administrative layers, few

people at the upper levels 8 Simultaneous loose-tight properties Fostering a climate where

there is dedication to central values of the company

combined with tolerance ofall employees who do not accept those values.

Source: Courtesy of Thomas J. Peters and Robert H. Waterman. Jr (1982). In search of excellence Harper and Row Pub.

3.6.1 APPLICATIONOFMANAGEMENTEXCELLENCEINTVE

A close analysis of the concept of management excellence shows that it offers managers another opportunity or alternative way of assessing their organizations, particularly with reference to their structure and styles of administering them.

The application of the principles and attributes of management excellence can especially be adapted to technical and vocational institutions, but the difference in terms of the nature of its input, process and output that the manager of TVE institution is concerned with must be taken into consideration. On the other hand since management excellence has not really been proven through independent research asa‘grounded’theory, its application must be undertaken with care.

STUDENT SELF ASSESSMENT

Summarise your view on management excellence as put forward by Peters andWaterman.

4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit has provided youthe different perspectives by which contemporary management theories have been conceived, namely, in terms of system, contingency theory, theory Z and management excellence. The conclusion to be drawn from all these theories is that no one theoretical perspective can provide a ‘fool-proof’ approach to the study and understanding of organizations and the best approach to managing them.

5.0 SUMMARY

We started the unit by identifying two types of systems, namely a closed system which, unlike the open system, does not receive input from its environment, and the open system. Every system has interdependent systems. A system comprises the input, operation and output processes. The systems theory presents managers alternative approach to organizational analysis.

Contingency theory considers that the approach to a problem or situation depends on which alternative to its solution is most appropriate in a given circumstance.

Theory Z seeks to combine the best practices of both the Japanese and America approaches with a view to adopting a much more ideal system of management.

Management excellence is based on the need to identify and select the best attributes that would enhance managerial efficiency.