Delito de violación de la libertad de trabajo

The economic pathway identified for Berlin in Section 4.2 was inherent understanding. An inherent political and community appreciation and thus buy in did not require an in depth economic exploration to justify biophilic urbanism. The literature as well as interviews highlighted the long history of urban vegetation that cultivated a culture that demands it in Berlin as well a politically binding legislation to enhance urban sustainability where possible. The following sections will distinguish the economic push and pull factors, informed by the literature and interviews.

4.8.1 Economic push factors

The literature and interviews point to the impact of mitigating against a crisis in shaping Berlin’s biophilic future. Post World War 1, unemployment in Berlin was exceptionally high and an influx of refugees entered the city increasing the population.469 With the global financial crisis further exacerbating these problems, an economic stimulus was required to help save Berlin’s economy. With national, state and local funding in place, construction of some 43 projects were developed to trigger economic development as well as engagement from the public to create more value from these developments from the start of development to its completion and use.470 This form of economic stimulus is long term as it considers the use value of these developments for the economy. Interviews highlighted that after experiencing city destruction the government developed strong environmental sensibility to help revitalize the country.471 The Scharoun-Plan was developed to provide a

comprehensive urban renewal concept, which outlined how the City would reintroduce the city’s natural assets. Other key events such as the 1970s oil crisis and the 1986 Chernobyl disaster that threatened the German community with radiation contamination also caused the community along with government department to further develop strong environmental sensibility.472 Additionally, with industrialization taking place in Germany as far back as the 18th century, residents were already beginning to witness the very visible air pollution making them aware of the importance of environmental conservation. Hence, urban nature became an inherent key priority in Berlin.

Berlin serves as an interesting case study as the economic business case of urban greening is not entirely clear and rather implicit. With a long history of urban ecology, an inherent community appreciation was formed. Hence, the BAF was an idea that emerged to respond to growing community demand for urban greening. Interviews reiterated this by explaining that the politically binding legislation as well as growing public demand pushes Berlin to constantly introduce innovative urban greening programs and policies.473

4.8.2 Economic pull factors

Ad hoc economic studies have and are being conducted in Berlin for academic exploration and understanding, not necessarily to specifically justify the business case for biophilic urbanism. Hence the following studies, to a certain extent, pull the urban ecology forward especially when Berlin is confronted with an economic crisis and funding for urban ecology is the first to get affected. These studies explored the ecosystem services of introducing biophilic elements. Enhancing the local knowledge base undeniably assists in pulling biophilic urbanism forward, particularly when departments are financially constrained. They predominately interrogated the functionality of the element in assisting with issues such as stormwater management, health well-being, enhancing productivity, among others. Selection of studies aims to demonstrate the exploration of ecosystem services in the urban context; these do not necessarily capture every study conducted in Berlin. Some of these studies are discussed below.

• Stormwater runoff: Stormwater runoff has been recognised in Germany as far as the 1970s. German households had to pay stormwater rates equating the stormwater burden produced from their property. Tax assessor’s data and aerial photographs were used in Berlin to calculate the cost of stormwater runoff from each property. Subsequently, households reviewed these estimated figures and public information campaigns were run simultaneously to spread awareness of this externality. Although, there was an attempt to account for this externality, the fees charged were not high enough to result in land use changes.474

• Health cost savings: A study by the Kiel Institute for Economic Research conducted a study exploring the impact of increased heat on health. Their study found future increase in heat frequency due to climate change.475 This in turn is predicted to increase heat induced health effects in Germany causing a high negative influence on the German economy. Heat induced casualties will increase threefold: This study developed a heat island effect map to study and determine the severity. It estimated that the number of heat deaths is expected to rise by 7,500 in 2100 from 4,500 experienced today. This is due to the increased temperature, which is triggering cardiovascular problems that in some cases leads to death. Heat related hospitalisation will increase sixfold: Their study looked at the influence of heat on hospital emergency admissions and hospitalisation costs. Due to difficulty in quantification, the study specifically focused on computing heat induced rise in general hospitalisation costs (in today’s costs). An accurate forecast of future health care costs is impossible due to unpredictable progress in future medical care technology. Hence, this study demonstrates a rough estimate or provides insight into the potential impact on the German economy, rather than act as absolute figures. In the period between 2071 to 2100, their study found average hospitalisation costs of about 495 million euros per year. This is a sixfold increase compared to the climatic reference period 1971 to 2000. This, however, only represents 0.88 per cent of total German hospitalisation costs and 0.27 per cent of German health care expenses. As mentioned earlier, due to uncertain and changing parameter values, heat related hospitalisation costs cannot be identified exactly. Nonetheless, it still provides an idea of potential financial savings if the heat induced illnesses were mitigated.

• Productivity: Reduction in work performance causing output loss of between 0.1 per cent -0.5 per cent of gross domestic product (GDP): Heat can also negatively affect well- being by causing discomfort and loss of concentration. Some studies have started to explore work performance or mental abilities under different thermal environments.476 The results demonstrate that when deviating from the comfortable level of 23°C, strong negative effects were evident. A range of 3 per cent to 50 per cent human performance was reported in temperatures higher than the comfortable level. More specifically, office employees reached maximum performance at 23°C and only 7 per cent of the maximum at 30°C. When assuming productivity reduction by 3 per cent, the economic loss due to heat induced productivity decrease amounts to approximately 540 million euros; equal to 0.03 per cent of Germany’s total GDP. Consideration of the benefits and how they outweigh the costs was discussed most prominently “Rainwater management concept” report.477 The key findings will be discussed below. Overall, there seems to be discussion of the split incentive dilemma described in previous chapters. Energy savings

was a significant benefit that helped justify the high cost of construction. These savings were multiplied when coupled with further insulation to provide positive winter insulation. Green roofs offer an array of benefits.

• Cooling insulation: A prominent benefit of green roofs is its ability to prevent strong heat input into buildings. Looking at measurable benefits, the report explored the value in terms of optimising the building energy balance.478 The UFA Fabrik in Tempelhof compared the cooling potential between a green roof and a conventional roof. The results showed that a green roof’s maximum surface temperature reached 30°C; whereas the neighbouring bitumen roof reached 55°C. This inevitably provides significant benefits for building with high inner heat loads, particularly when calculating air-conditioning systems. Green roofs do not necessarily cool much compared to conventional roofs. However, this balanced temperature provided by green roof makes roof cladding durable thus increasing roof longevity. 479

• Heat insulation: Berlin, like most European cities, experiences cold winters and hence heat installation is extremely important. Typically, about 22 per cent of heat is lost through roofs. Coupling the biophilic element, a green roof, with added layers has shown to provide significant insulation benefits. Manufacturers are now recommending these so-called ‘thermo roofs’. A study from the University of Applied Sciences Neubrandenburg explored this further. Their results found a positive winter insulating effect of about 2 to 10 per cent.480

4.8.3 Economic valuation method

The push factors identified in this case study seem to be a history of urban greening hence cultivating a community and government that support biophilic elements (see Table 4-7). For this reason, no metrics or economic reports seem to have been commissioned prior to introducing the Biotope Area Factor (BAF). Rather the government of Berlin recognise the obligation towards community in introducing more creative urban greening programs and/or policies.

Table 4-7: Berlin Economic Push and Pull Factors

Push factor(s) Push factor(s)

metrics Pull Factor(s) Pull factor(s) metrics

Historic culture Community

support

-

Storm water runoff Reduced rainwater tax fee MB Health cost savings Heat induced hospitalization cost MB Productivity Output loss MB

Well-being NB

Cooling and heating insulation

Rainwater management concept report NB

Ad hoc local studies

Roof longevity Rainwater management concept report NB UHI Rainwater management concept report NB Enhance urban biodiversity Rainwater management concept report NB

Appreciating the abovementioned, the pull factors identified have been gathered from ad hoc academic studies conducted in Berlin. With a long history of urban greening, Berlin is has an understanding of urban ecology. Some studies explored the benefits in terms of stormwater, health, enhanced productivity, insulation, increasing roof lifespan, reducing UHI and even enhancing urban biodiversity.

Reducing the rainwater tax fee, hospitalisation costs and output loss are straightforward quantifiable benefits, hence categorised as MB. Well-being in this instance was not quantified in Berlin and rather is considered a social benefit. The rainwater management concept report identified numerous benefits of biophilic elements, however they were not quantified. Although most of the metrics identified from this report can certainly have an economic value linked it to. This will be explored further as part of the in-depth inquiry process.

Although most of the pull factors metrics have been categorised as measurable benefits (MB), the reports have not necessarily conducted an economic assessment per se; rather these metrics are identified and acknowledged, rather than quantified.