CAPÍTULO XIII De los delitos societarios
DE LOS DELITOS CONTRA LA HACIENDA PÚBLICA Y CONTRA LA SEGURIDAD SOCIAL
In this article, I have tried to throw some light on Sloboda’s (1986) original questions by pointing out some of the key points of contact between music education and the developmental psychology of music. Behavioural psychology in a sense exists by virtue of its application to the classroom, and thus side-steps the problem—but it has some severe limitations, as I have tried to indicate. Most of the rest of our knowledge of musical development, it must be admitted, is of indirect rather than of direct help. Music teachers are more likely to need to evaluate and compare the different pedagogical techniques and theories that they might draw on, such as those of Orff, Kodaly, and Suzuki, for example, in their everyday work. Nevertheless, I think that there are some issues of immediate concern to music educators to which developmental psychologists can make a direct contribution.
The first of these concerns the distinction between the ‘formal’ and ‘intuitive’ aspects of musical understanding. The recommendation in the HMI document Music 5–16 (DES, 1985:1) that ‘the mastery of techniques should be subservient to experiencing music itself ‘goes all the way back to Rousseau, Jacques- Dalcroze and others, of course, and yet it still provokes disagreement and even hostility. The fact that the British Schools Council Project Music in the Secondary School Curriculum (Paynter, 1982) remains controversial underlines this point: Many teachers still emphasize the academic, formal aspects of music rather than its intuitive, creative aspects, and may thus be putting the cart before the horse. My hope is that scientific evidence about children’s use of formal and intuitive cognitive strategies in musical development, such as in the work of Bamberger, should have an important part to play in the practical pros and cons of this argument.
The second issue is closely related to this, and concerns the curriculum. Here again, Her Majesty’s Inspectors are (perhaps surprisingly!) forward-looking in proposing that composition and improvisation should be integral, assessed parts
of the music syllabus: playing by ear and creative music-making are considered to be just as important as the ability to read and write formal notation, and to perform from a score. This leads to a second point, which is that the former may be much more important in certain areas, such as pop, jazz or folk music. The Inspectors suggest that ‘what music is taught is only slightly more important than the way it is taught’ (1985:2), and it goes almost without saying that different skills are demanded by different musics. Formal notational skills are required in many forms of tonal music; programming, recording and studio production skills are essential in many forms of electronic and experimental music; jazz, pop and many non-Western forms of music rely on aural skills and improvisation; traditional and ethnic musics may well demand an understanding of their historical and cultural contexts: and so on. I would make the simple point that psychologists should be able to provide us with an understanding of the interrelationships between these different skills, and also perhaps of the general developmental principles underlying them. (I would also add, in passing, that the musical materials used by many experimenters in music psychology are as conventional as in the most traditional of classrooms!)
The third issue concerns the role of evaluation and assessment. One of the largest single areas of music psychology deals with ability testing and personality assessment, as we have seen, and contemporary psychology offers a comprehensive, sophisticated armoury of techniques of psychometric assessment and statistical analysis. It does not seem unreasonable that music educators should expect some help from psychologists in this respect. This might enable them to assess pupil progress, so that particular teaching programmes can be devised accordingly: to evaluate the effectiveness of teachers, or at least to enable teachers to appraise their own effectiveness: and to evaluate the objectives of the course of instruction itself. I am not sure that British music educators could or should aspire to the ideals of North American-style competency-based music education, but a rigorous analysis of existing practice along these lines would do no harm in the present disorganized context.
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