Densidad relativa

Breadth of opportunities and progression pathways from compulsory schooling are important to young people's participation after school (Bivand, 2004; Kewin et al., 2009; Pring et al., 2009; Spielhofer et al., 2009). There is a need for a range of curriculum pathways, which take account of different needs and abilities and reflect different economic and social contexts (Mangan, Adnett and Davies, 2001; Pring et al., 2009). Flexibility in programmes is highlighted, including start times, programme activities and locations, to meet the needs of different groups in different localities (Kewin et al., 2009). Apprenticeships are highlighted as a work-based route, with vocational training that offers a valuable alternative route (Brockmann, Clarke, and Winch, 2010; Fuller and Unwin, 2009). Quality of provision is highlighted as important, particularly for retention (Bivand, 2004; Spielhofer et al., 2009). However, the complexity of retention is also highlighted. Bivand (2004) identifies that some providers who took on more challenging learners, with multiple disadvantages, then experienced lower retention, which may reflect the greater challenges faced by the learners rather than being a reflection of the quality of the young person’s experience on the programme (Bivand, 2004).

Employment opportunities provide important pathways for young people from age 16, both with informal training and formal training such as apprenticeships. Pring et al. (2009, p.137) provided a helpful summary of the policy goals ‘for which the labour market is expected to act as the motor’, from which extracts are presented in the table on the next page:

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Policy goals for which the labour market is expected to be the motor

Far higher levels of achievement of Level 2 (General Certificate of Education (GCSEs) and/or diplomas at age 16

Far higher levels of post-compulsory participation, with the aim of reaching 90 per cent in the near future

Far higher levels of achievement at Levels 2 and 3 (A-Levels, diplomas and National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs) at age 18/19

Diplomas (at Levels 2 and 3) to have achieved parity of esteem with GCSEs and A- Levels, in terms both of entry into higher education (HE) and of the esteem with which they are held with employers, reflected in the size of the wage premiums they are willing to offer to those who hold them

Diplomas (at Levels 2 and 3) to have achieved parity of esteem with GCSEs and A- Levels, in terms both of entry into higher education (HE) and of the esteem with which they are held with employers, reflected in the size of the wage premiums they are willing to offer to those who hold them

Provision of high quality work experience to all youngsters, and the embedding of such provision within the diplomas

Expanded, vibrant and high quality apprenticeship system, as the sole means of acquiring vocational qualifications for 16 to 19 year olds;

End to jobs without formalised, certified training for young people under the age of 18 as part of the move to raising the compulsory learning age to 18

Table 1: Policy goals for which the labour market is expected to be the motor

(Table comprised from points highlighted by Pring et al., 2009, p.134) These are high expectations for any sector to act as the motor, but for employers, this is compounded by the pace of change in the sector for which Hodgson and

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Spours (2008) argue ‘there is no settled view about the way forward in either the short or the longer term’ (Hodgson and Spours, 2008, p.115). This is demonstrated by the shifts in policy and expectations on employers even since Pring et al.’s work (2009). For example, diplomas were subsequently made optional rather than a key part of the 14 to 19 Entitlement (Hodgson and Spours, 2011d). The complexity of policy development and lack of clear direction is referred to as ‘turbulence masquerading as change’ by Lumby and Foskett (2007, p.86). Lumby and Foskett argue the source of this was a tension in the then Labour Government policy between a dominant neoliberal approach and subordinate social democratic approach. The neoliberal approach is reflected in the restructuring of the public sector through privatisation and competition, with an emphasis on performance management and auditing. The social democratic approach, however, is demonstrated through promoting increased expenditure on education and the drive to reduce the number of young people who are classified as being NEET. Further shifts in policy are occurring, as the Coalition Government implements its policies and seeks to reduce public expenditure in response to the economic downturn. This is resulting in further changes for employers as the emphasis on diplomas has been reduced further (Hodgson and Spours, 2011d) and requirements for work experience at Key Stage 4 withdrawn (Wolf, 2011). However, the expectations on the sector remain high as government still expects all employers to provide accredited training when employing young people aged 16 to 18 (DfES, 2007a) and anticipates that much of the remaining increase in participation would comprise growth in apprenticeships.

There is therefore a significant tension as government policy rests on contributions by employers in providing increased employment opportunities with training for young people, but employers find the policy shifts confusing and are providing fewer opportunities as experienced by young people through the focus groups in this research. The reduction in opportunities for young people in the recession is proportionately larger than for the population as a whole and in North America, the reduction in employment for young people is reported as higher than the total reduction in employment in the Great Depression (Gandel, 2010).

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Young people's pathways from school to further education or employment are inter-related with their access to information, advice and guidance, with young people who are classified as NEET less likely to receive advice or guidance at school than those in further education or training (Maguire and Rennison, 2005). For young people who achieve less well than they expected at age 16, many become classified as NEET because of a lack of awareness of alternative options (EdComms, 2007). Information, advice and guidance are also important for a successful transition for those young people moving into employment with training at 16 (Cartmel, 2000; Furlong, 2006). Information, advice and guidance while young people are at school are therefore important and good decision making on options after compulsory schooling is linked to the wider strengths in school of good curriculum management, good student support and strong leadership (Blenkinsop et al., 2006).

The quality and timing of information, advice and guidance is critical, with evidence that a generalised approach without a focus on individual needs is part of the cause of unsuccessful transitions to further education and training (MacDonald and Marsh, 2005). There are case studies of programmes where early leavers describe the course not meeting their expectations as a key factor in their withdrawal from the course (Simm, Page and Miller, 2007). In summary, it is important to have flexible and relevant learning pathways, with high quality provision supported by timely information, advice and guidance (Lumby and Foskett, 2005). These factors are shown to be important not just to initial participation but, critically, to retention and progression. The literature review now considers emerging findings in relation to the perspectives of young people themselves.

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