As of now there are only a few investigations in Switzerland as to the relationships between concrete didactic settings of integrative teaching and cognitive performance of the learners. On the other hand the effectiveness of organizational measures like repetitions and integrative ways of teaching have been widely studied. Both are measures which allow the child to remain in the regular classroom and to be taught there. In connection with questions arising from intercultural education the effect of a heterogeneous make-up of classes on school performance has been examined.
5.15.3.1 Class repetition
The statistical analysis of the number of repetitions at elementary schools in Geneva (1986–93) has shown that despite an increase in special resources in order to diminish school failure (e.g. smaller classes, addition of support lessons) the number of repetitions as well as the difference in social standing have not diminished but increased. The researchers concluded that in these cases complex influences were at work which needed to be analysed in more detail (SIDOS 1214).
A study from Neuenburg (1995–96) showed after statistical analysis that in elementary school boys repeated classes almost twice as often as girls. In addition boys were being sent to transition classes (class-type with lower requirements) more frequently than girls who in turn attended the gymnasium more often. Also, children speaking a foreign language were at a disadvantage (SIDOS 5020).
A study in the canton Waadt about the school situation of Portuguese pupils (1996–98) produced similar results: repetition as a support measure does not lead to success in school. New types of support measures need to be evaluated, e.g. differentiation within the classroom (working with a particular group of learners within the class) and further training for teachers (differentiation in educational measures). Interestingly enough, repetition as a support measure is used more frequently in the French-speaking part of Switzerland than in the German-speaking part (SIDOS 6700).
5.15.3.2 Supportive measures – integrated classrooms
In general, studies since 1980 show clearly the positive effect of integration on the learning development of children with various handicaps. According to current research results, the integration of children with handicaps into regular classrooms does not seem to have any kind of negative effects on the performance of their classmates. In regard to positive effects of integrative teaching measures, however, clear answers are lacking, especially inasmuch as different results are attained for different handicapping conditions (Bless, 1995).
integrating and separating types of schooling. With the help of qualitative interviews researchers were looking for conditions which might contribute to the co-operation between teachers in order to further the success of integrative teaching. The researchers found that it is important for the regular education teacher as well as the special education teacher to have a common vision of an integrating model for schools and society. They need to be equal partners (which should also be expressed in the level of their salary) and their understanding of their role model and their responsibilities based on the above-mentioned ‘vision’ has to be reflected in their training, the requirements and duties of all partners (SKBF: 92:060).
Within the framework of a longitudinal study, involving an experimental and a control group, at the University of Freiburg (1995) about the effect of integrating and separating forms of schooling on slow learners, the following hypothesis was formulated. The progress of students who are slow learners or are learning disabled and who are attending regular classrooms with special education support is better compared to students in small (special) classes under the following conditions: if the special education teachers regularly have the possibility for professional exchange with other specialists who have a similar job assignment; if the regular education teacher is successful in implementing a positive climate in the classroom; if the class is composed heterogeneously in respect to intellectual potential of the pupils; if the special educators working in the classroom have completed their full special education training (SKBF 95:053).
In Zürich (1985–1990) the experimental programmes for integrative teaching (with support lessons by special education teachers outside the regular classroom) were scientifically followed in longitudinal and cross-sectional studies as well as with in-depth interviews, standardized tests etc. The evaluation showed that cognitive development of pupils with learning difficulties could be achieved under the condition that interaction and co- operation between all people concerned with education (pupils, teachers, special education and psychological personnel) were functioning well (SKBF 90:073).
Despite the positive effects of support measures, which make integrated schooling possible, new questions arise, as a study regarding the development of integrated schooling in Switzerland (1993) shows. The support measures, which as a rule are implemented outside the classroom and which therefore reduce the number of lessons for the child within the regular classroom, tend to tie the problems to the individual child. This help for the child with learning difficulties therefore suppresses the awareness of the need to offer a general school programme with differentiated and individualized learning environments (SKBF 93:091). 5.15.3.3 Composition of students in the classroom and quality of teaching
Rüesch (1997, 1998) has studied the effects of the social make-up of German Swiss elementary classrooms on reading performance of children within the framework of the ‘Reading Literacy Study’ and has reached the following conclusion: in regard to the socio- economic composition, it was shown that with an increasing number of pupils from higher social groups in a particular classroom, the individual child reaches higher performance, independent of his own social background. It was further shown that in classrooms with a heterogeneous socio-economic make-up, children from lower social levels achieved better performance, while children from higher social levels achieved lower performance. The number of foreign-language children within a classroom, however, had no specific effect on the performance of the elementary pupils in this sample, as long as the other above-mentioned features were being considered (socio-economic mix, class size). The make-up of
a class can be considered a potential risk factor in regard to the quality of learning processes. Many of the mediating factors within the classroom context (subjectively benefiting from learning, self-concept, processes of social comparison, quality of interaction within the class setting) can be subject to educational intervention.
An evaluation of learning success in 80 sixth grades in Zürich (Moser/Rhyn 2000) has shown that the social origin and the (foreign) language origin are closely related and influence the learning outcomes. Classes with a high percentage of foreign language pupils are automatically classes with pupils of generally lower socio-economic background. Analysis of the effect of both of these features, average socio-economic background and percentage of foreign-language children, is no longer reliably possible. All the same, the results tend to show that the percentage of foreign language children turns out to be the decisive factor for school performance. The effects can be clearly shown when the percentage (depending on the definition of ‘foreign-language speakers’) reaches more than 45–50% – the so called ‘topple effect’. Foreign-language pupils who have lived in Switzerland more than three years show only minor delays in performance. The significance of the socio-economic background is more important than the language background in regard to learning success in mathematics and German. In addition, Moser and Rhyn point out that for low performing students the composition of classes which are homogeneous has a negative effect.
Moser and Rhyn (2000) have also collected empirical data about the quality of teaching through the assessment of students and have evaluated this data according to particular classrooms. The following criteria regarding ‘quality of teaching’ were assessed: explanation of assignments, goal-oriented learning, conveying of information, working climate, discipline, teacher attitude in regard to support of learners, individualized teaching, understandability of lessons etc. No direct correlation between level of performance and quality of teaching could be found. However, the quality of teaching has a positive effect on learning readiness and therefore indirectly on performance.
5.15.3.4 Didactic measures
A survey of fourth-grade as well as seventh- and eighth-grade teachers in the canton Waadt showed that concerning the integration of foreign-language children into the regular classes about half the teachers respond to the special needs of foreign language pupils as much with their ways of teaching as with the use of selected textbooks and other teaching aids. The majority of teachers, however, consider themselves not adequately prepared and wish for additional training (SKBF 96:005).
The above-mentioned experimental programmes with integrative teaching models in Zürich (SKBF 90:073) demonstrated that positive development in school performance of pupils with learning difficulties can be reached in the best way, if the actual teaching is increasingly differentiated and individualized and a well-functioning co-operation among teachers exists.
In Switzerland it has been recognized during the last years that heterogeneously composed classrooms demand teaching methods of great variety. Therefore a special curriculum for intercultural education has been developed and is being used at the regular education colleges (EDK-Dossier 60). A further curriculum to be used at these colleges with regard to special education is in preparation.
Observations made during an interregional study (Geneva, Neuenburg, Ticino) demonstrated that the more problems pupils have with their tasks, the more teachers tend to
‘help’ them. This goes so far as to produce a paradoxical situation: if children do well on a task, teachers let them work and thus facilitate independent and responsible learning behaviour. If children have problems, teachers offer help, take them ‘by the hand’ and guide them to their goal. Thus the situation can arise where individualized teaching can lead to impeding – maybe even preventing – the development of necessary learning processes. This in part has to do with teachers wanting or needing to prove the usefulness of their endeavours (SKBF 93:080).
In the earlier-mentioned study at the University of Freiburg (1995) in regard to the effect of integrating versus separating forms of schooling for pupils with learning difficulties it was also found that in classes with successful integration the classroom climate was positively influenced, the class was heterogeneously composed and the teacher involved was a fully trained and qualified special educator (SKBF 95:053).
5.15.3.5 Attitudes and patterns of thinking
A longitudinal study in Chur with the topic of communication and failure in school dealt with the following question: how do the theoretical thinking patterns of teachers in regard to learning disorders and difficulties in school affect the assessment of performance. The results show that the experiences and thinking patterns of teachers have a decisive influence on assessment of students and therefore also on their further development (SKBF 91:045).
An interregional study (Geneva, Neuenburg, Ticino, 1993–96) demonstrated that those involved (school psychologists, teachers, support teachers, speech therapists) have different views about the reasons for school problems, according to their professional backgrounds. Psychologists do not hesitate to define intelligence and classroom teachers point to family situations to explain problems in school. In addition children with school problems seem to get divided into two types; the ones more likely to have psychological and social problems (mostly boys from middle income families, with Italian mother tongue, first-graders) and the ones more likely to have specific problems in specific subjects (mostly girls of foreign background and from lower class families) (SKBF 93:080).