4. Análisis constitucional
4.2. Sobre el derecho al debido proceso en la garantía de motivación en la
This paper has described how a framework (resource areas) for making technology and industrial policy, based on theoretically based cluster studies, has been implemented and modified in Denmark in the 1990s.
Furthermore, the paper has shown that the concept of clusters has been, and still is, related to very different types of studies and properties of the observed objects. If one factor linking all studies and types of clusters together is to be extracted, it must be the knowledge base, which explicitly or implicitly is present in all the above mentioned clusters. If a definition of a cluster is to be proposed in this concluding section, it has to relate to this common knowledge base: a cluster is a group of firms, an industry, or a group of industries, which exists in relation to a strong knowledge base. The knowledge base does not necessarily imply high technology, as with the case of agro/food and beverages, but a distinct knowledge base is still present. In the agro/food case the knowledge base is developed through the existence of a home market with close linkages between users of equipment and manufacturers of machinery for the use in this cluster. An important part of the knowledge base is created in the interaction between the users and suppliers, thereby resulting in a co-evolution between their respective industries, which tends to produce international competitiveness in both their fields. In the resource areas the knowledge bases are expressed as strength positions, and because of the generally very broad definitions, some resource areas have more than one strength position. This is e.g. the case in the consumer goods and leisure area, which includes both production of electrical equipment and traditional, more design based industries such as furniture, as well as some services.
Also ways of identifying clusters have been discussed in this paper. One way is to apply measures of trade specialisation, by identifying areas of comparative advantage in international trade. Such a procedure was e.g. followed in the Porter related studies. Other variables, such as value added, production and R&D, have been used as well. Another approach has been to identify vertical relations in the economy. Such relations can be identified at the micro level, mainly through case studies, while input-output analysis is a widely used methodology at the level of the industry. In this regard graph theoretical techniques for identifying important linkages, appear to be a promising method for further analyses. In terms of methods for application in future research the use of patent statistics as a means of identifying clusters, based on technological proximity, has been little used in the Danish context.
Policy has played an important role in this paper, since the major part of the cluster studies has been carried out with specific policy aims as a major driving force. It is obvious though, that theoretically based studies and practical policy actions do not always combine easily. While theoretically based studies aim at providing clarity and coherence in the analysis, policy making is concerned with ‘muddling through’ the complex reality. An example of this trade-off can be found in the history of the Danish resource areas, discussed in this paper. On the one hand, it can be said that the areas are to some extent based on theoretically based cluster studies. On the other hand each resource areas also have the function of acting as a framework for dialogues between firms and public authorities. Hence, it would not be wise in a policy context to exclude some firms in certain sectors, because such sectors were not identified as a cluster or as a part of a
cluster. Thus, this trade-off should be acknowledged, so that a balance between allowing for pragmatic policy making (with more than a single aim) on the one side, while not losing the theoretical foundation on the other, can be maintained.
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D
anishR
esearchU
nit forI
ndustrialD
ynamicsThe Research Programme
The DRUID-research programme is organised in 3 different research themes :
- The firm as a learning organisation
- Competence building and inter-firm dynamics
- The learning economy and the competitiveness of systems of innovation
In each of the three areas there is one strategic theoretical and one central empirical and policy oriented orientation.
Theme A: The firm as a learning organisation
The theoretical perspective confronts and combines the ressource-based view (Penrose, 1959) with recent approaches where the focus is on learning and the dynamic capabilities of the firm (Dosi, Teece and Winter, 1992). The aim of this theoretical work is to develop an analytical understanding of the firm as a learning organisation.
The empirical and policy issues relate to the nexus technology, productivity, organisational change and human ressources. More insight in the dynamic interplay between these factors at the level of the firm is crucial to understand international differences in performance at the macro level in terms of economic growth and employment.
Theme B: Competence building and inter-firm dynamics
The theoretical perspective relates to the dynamics of the inter-firm division of labour and the formation of network relationships between firms. An attempt will be made to develop evolutionary models with Schumpeterian innovations as the motor driving a Marshallian evolution of the division of labour.
The empirical and policy issues relate the formation of knowledge-intensive regional and sectoral networks of firms to competitiveness and structural change. Data on the structure of production will be combined with indicators of knowledge and learning. IO-matrixes which include flows of knowledge and new technologies will be developed and supplemented by data from case-studies and questionnaires.
The third theme aims at a stronger conceptual and theoretical base for new concepts such as 'systems of innovation' and 'the learning economy' and to link these concepts to the ecological dimension. The focus is on the interaction between institutional and technical change in a specified geographical space. An attempt will be made to synthesise theories of economic development emphasising the role of science based-sectors with those empha- sising learning-by-producing and the growing knowledge-intensity of all economic activities. The main empirical and policy issues are related to changes in the local dimensions of innovation and learning. What remains of the relative autonomy of national systems of innovation? Is there a tendency towards convergence or divergence in the specialisation in trade, production, innovation and in the knowledge base itself when we compare regions and nations?
The Ph.D.-programme
There are at present more than 10 Ph.D.-students working in close connection to the DRUID research programme. DRUID organises regularly specific Ph.D-activities such as workshops, seminars and courses, often in a co-operation with other Danish or international institutes. Also important is the role of DRUID as an environment which stimulates the Ph.D.-students to become creative and effective. This involves several elements:
- access to the international network in the form of visiting fellows and visits at the sister institutions
- participation in research projects - access to supervision of theses - access to databases
Each year DRUID welcomes a limited number of foreign Ph.D.-students who wants to work on subjects and project close to the core of the DRUID-research programme.
External projects
DRUID-members are involved in projects with external support. One major project which covers several of the elements of the research programme is DISKO; a comparative analysis of the Danish Innovation System; and there are several projects involving international co- operation within EU's 4th Framework Programme. DRUID is open to host other projects as far as they fall within its research profile. Special attention is given to the communication of research results from such projects to a wide set of social actors and policy makers.
96-1 Lundvall, Bengt-Åke: The Social Dimension of the Learning Economy.
(ISBN 87-7873-000-7)
96-2 Foss, Nicolai J.: Firms, Incomplete Contracts and Organizational Learning.
(ISBN 87-7873-001-5)
96-3 Dalum, Bent and Villumsen, Gert:Are OECD Export Specialisation Patterns
Sticky?’ Relations to the Convergence-Divergence Debate. (ISBN 87-7873-002-3)
96-4 Foss, Nicolai J: Austrian and Post-Marshallian Economics: The Bridging Work of
George Richardson. (ISBN 87-7873-003-1)
96-5 Andersen, Esben S., Jensen, Anne K., Madsen, Lars and Jørgensen, Martin: The
Nelson and Winter Models Revisited: Prototypes for Computer-Based Reconstruction of Schumpeterian Competition. (ISBN 87-7873-005-8)
96-6 Maskell, Peter: Learning in the village economy of Denmark. The role of institutions
and policy in sustaining competitiveness. (ISBN 87-7873-006-6)
96-7 Foss, Nicolai J. & Christensen, Jens Frøslev: A Process Approach to Corporate
Coherence. (ISBN 87-7873-007-4)
96-8 Foss, Nicolai J.: Capabilities and the Theory of the Firm. (ISBN 87-7873-008-2)
96-9 Foss, Kirsten: A transaction cost perspective on the influence of standards on product
development: Examples from the fruit and vegetable market. (ISBN 87-7873-009-0)
96-10 Richardson, George B.: Competition, Innovation and Increasing Returns. (ISBN 87-
7873-010-4)
96-11 Maskell, Peter: Localised low-tech learning in the furniture industry.
(ISBN 87-7873-011-2)
96-12 Laursen, Keld: The Impact of Technological Opportunity on the Dynamics of Trade
Performance. (ISBN 87-7873-012-0)
96-14 Dalum, Bent, Laursen, Keld & Villumsen, Gert: The Long Term Development of
OECD Export Specialisation Patterns: De-specialisation and “Stickiness”. (ISBN 87- 7873-014-7)
96-15 Foss, Nicolai J.: Thorstein B. Veblen: Precursor of the Competence-Based Approach
to the Firm. (ISBN 87-7873-015-5)
96-16 Gjerding, Allan Næs: Organisational innovation in the Danish private business sector.
(ISBN 87-7873-016-3)
96-17 Lund, Reinhard & Gjerding, Allan Næs: The flexible company Innovation, work
organisation and human ressource management. (ISBN 87-7873-017-1)
97-1 Foss, Nicolai J.: The Resource-Based Perspective: An Assessment and Diagnosis of
Problems. (ISBN 87-7873-019-8)
97-2 Langlois, Richard N. & Foss, Nicolai J.: Capabilities and Governance: the Rebirth
of Production in the Theory of Economic Organization. (ISBN 87-7873-020-1)
97-3 Ernst, Dieter: Partners for the China Circle? The Asian Production Networks of
Japanese Electronics Firms. (ISBN 87-7873-022-8)
97-4 Richardson, George B.: Economic Analysis, Public Policy and the Software Industry.
(ISBN 87-7873-023-6)
97-5 Borrus, Michael & Zysman, John: You Don’t Have to Be A Giant: How The
Changing Terms of Competition in Global Markets are Creating New Possibilities For Danish Companies. (ISBN 87-7873-024-4)
97-6 Teubal, Morris.: Restructuring and Embeddedness of Business Enterprises- An
Industrial and Technological Policy Perspective to System of Innovation Transition. (ISBN 87-7873-025-2)
97-7 Ernst, Dieter & Guerrieri, Paolo: International Production Networks and Changing
Trade Patterns in East Asia: The Case of the Electronics Industry. (ISBN 87-7873-026- 0)
97-8 Lazaric, Nathalie & Marengo, Luigi: Towards a Characterisation of assets and
Knowledge Created in Technological Agreements: Some evidence from the automobile-robotics sector. (ISBN 87-7873-027-9)
Behavior and Market structure in the Electronics Industry. (ISBN 87-7873-028-7)
97-10 Foss, Nicolai J.: Equilibrium vs Evolution in the Resource-Based Perspective: The
Conflicting Legacies of Demsetz and Penrose. (ISBN 87-7873-029-5)
97-11 Foss, Nicolai J.: Incomplete Contracts and Economic Organization: Brian Loasby
and the Theory of the Firm. (ISBN 87-7873-030-9)
97-12 Ernst, Dieter & Lundvall, Bengt-Åke: Information Technology in The Learning
Economy - Challenges for Developing Countries. (ISBN 87-7873-031-7)
97-13 Kristensen, Frank Skov.: A study of four organisations in different competitive
environments. (ISBN 87-7873-032-5)
97-14 Drejer, Ina, Kristensen, Frank S. & Laursen, Keld: Studies of Clusters as a Basis
for Industrial and Technology Policy in the Danish Economy. (ISBN 87-7873-033-3)
Information for subscribers.
Subscription price for 1997 is 600 DKR (about 20 papers). The rate for single issues is 40 DKR. It is possible to make a commitment to an exchange of papers from related departments or research teams. All correspondence concerning the DRUID Working Papers should be send to:
Pernille Wittrup, Fibigerstræde 4, DK-9220 Aalborg OE