DE LOS DERECHOS Y OBLIGACIONES DEL ASEGURADOR Y DEL ASEGURADO

2.4.1 At what age is it best to transfer

Transfer to secondary school has historically been thought about in two ways. Galton et al. (2000) note that there is a belief by some that students will adjust and cope with this large change in their educational lives as it is a ‘rite of passage’. Another is that there is a need to smooth this passage through the creation of an initial phase in secondary school, to allow for increased social and emotional development of pupils, and to some extent replicate that of primary schooling, particularly for more vulnerable pupils.

Dutch and McCall (1974), in Scotland, carried out a quasi-experimental study to examine whether or not a ‘clean cut’ transfer between primary and secondary school was likely to cause adverse effects on students’ attainment and emotional adjustment. A transition unit was specifically set up in some secondary schools providing some protection from the larger school, by exposing children to fewer teachers and classrooms, aiming to reduce anxiety and contribute to an improvement in attitudes to school throughout the time of transfer. A comparison group of students transferred straight into secondary school without any specific adaptation being made. A cross-sectional approach was used to measure students’ attainment, anxiety and attitudes over time after transfer.

School size was evidenced as an important factor; those children who had attended small primary schools particularly benefitted from the transition department. The transition department did not appear to have had a major impact on academic attainment, but students were found to be better adjusted in the social and emotional domains than those who had not had this experience. The Dutch and McCall (1974) study provides useful insight into a

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supportive intervention at transfer, suggesting that adaptation to inhabit post-transfer is beneficial.

More recently, Ward (2000) in New Zealand, investigated children’s reactions to teaching in their new educational setting at age 11: two-year intermediate (middle) schools were established to bridge the transfer years, some of which were then extended to four years. These classes aimed to combine the consistent classroom approach of primary education, augmented by incremental exposure to specialist teaching in subject areas, more like the ‘regular’ secondary school. Ward tracked 18 students, in four different schools, as they progressed through transfer using pre- and post-transfer interviews. Parental interviews further added to the rich picture of the children’s experiences.

Ward found that children’s initial reactions and concerns centred around organisational issues, such as coping with daily routines and expectations. Those who entered ‘full’ secondary school later had by then acquired the added maturity to help them cope better. Ward suggests the potential of a more gradual transfer process, and that a ‘clean cut’ change is likely to be more problematic for less developmentally mature pupils. However, since the study was carried out in a small number of schools, with a small sample of students, generalisability needs to be questioned.

2.4.2 Social and emotional skill development and the effects of transfer

Moving from childhood into the teenage years is almost synonymous with the move to ‘big’ school. Galton, Morrison and Pell (2000) argue that the history of the education system in England may have created the socially constructed view of the ‘middle years’ of development, rather than this forming an otherwise noteable period within the lifespan developmental process.

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Lucey and Reay (2000) argue that the prospect of going to ‘big school’ presents children with a dilemma which is central to the experience of growing up in the wider sense. They state;

In order to gain freedom and autonomy from adult regulation one must be willing to relinquish some measure of the protection which that regulation affords. p 203

A Norwegian study of secondary school transfer, by Kvalsund (2000), looked at the contextual and social meanings embedded in children’s understanding of this life process. Kvalsund argues the importance of pupil awareness of the process of transfer and pupils’ social construction of the meaning that this presents, describing this as a ‘life course perspective’. Secondary school transfer is a marked occurrence that is socially created and recognised as a cultural turning point in a young person’s life; it provides order and predictability to a trajectory that is followed by all individuals within that society.

By examining perspectives of those involved in transfer in both smaller and larger rural school in Norway, Kvalsund found that it was not just the individual choices and benefits experienced by students that impacted upon their experiences, but also changes in patterns of relationships. Kvalsund notes that different children respond in different ways to this change process. For some it takes a long process to fully adapt and for others it is positive experience. Kvalsund explained that;

The transition represents a lengthy period of uncertainty and risky experimentation. This takes place in the form of complicated symbolic interaction between various groups of pupils. p420

For some pupils, by the middle of their first year into secondary school they seemed en route to being non-conformists, but as with other research, such as the ORACLE and its associated studies, showed most students do adapt well. Children in the study, as in previous studies, demonstrated high levels of anxiety at transfer, although again, this did not

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remain for long. The study provides insight into the wider cultural issue of transfer, although has limited generalisability and was set in a different education system to this study.

The influences of friends and friendships were explored in relation to the adjustment of students between schools in the United States. Berndt, Hawkins and Jiao (1999) note the increase in complexities that students face in terms of social and environmental differences experienced when moving up to a larger school. The influence of friendships is an important factor, as transfer can affect friendship groups developed over time and requires social competence to develop new social alliances in the middle years, which can be a developmentally difficult time.

Ladd (1999) reviewed extant literature in existence surrounding the importance of peer relations and social competence during early and middle childhood. Ladd emphasises, from a range of sources, how complex social and peer relations are at this stage of development. There are few concrete conclusions drawn; however a number of issues are highlighted that have implications for understanding impact of the transfer process for young people. Children who were less accepted by their peers tended to have aggressive or withdrawn profiles, aggression appearing to be the principal cause of peer rejection, and therefore likely to be at risk at transfer to secondary school. Ladd states, there is evidence to suggest that child friendships are an important predictor of children’s emotional well-being during early and middle school years.

It could be argued that more complex underlying issues could account for these difficulties, such as special educational needs or complex family situations. Ladd (1999) does not attempt to explore more complex explanations for social problems at this age.

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2.4.3 Which groups of young people are most vulnerable

Anderson, Jacobs, Schramm and Slittberger (2000) summarise from an exploration of 16 existing studies dating, from 1989 to 1998, into the impact of contextual factors on students’ abilities to negotiate the demands associated with systemic transitions. Anderson et al. (2000) found that girls were more likely than boys to struggle at transfer and note that this may be due to girls coping less well with friendship disruptions, with a contingent negative impact on their self–esteem.

Those who exhibit forms of difficult behaviour prior to transfer were also more likely to find transfer more problematic. Likewise those with low academic performance were more likely to find it more difficult to settle and achieve at secondary school. Anderson et al. (2000) identified a fourth factor, which combines socio-economic status and race groups. Those from minority groups and lower socio-economic status were more at risk. The support of families was important to transfer success and those who had more supportive home environments tended to experience less academic difficulty as they progressed through the transfer process.

Anderson et al. (2000) provide limited detail regarding the evidence base for the conclusions drawn but do offer a useful insight into some of the potential risk factors for some students, and highlight the need for differentiated provisions to accommodate pupils’ diverse circumstances and needs at school transfer. They state;

Receiving schools should make every effort to create a sense of community and belonging.. it should be possible to create smaller, more intimate sub-communities of peers and teachers

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Those with greater risk factors are less likely to cope with and quickly move on from the anxiety experienced at transfer and more likely to require the opportunity to access smaller group, supportive opportunities.

Bailey and Baines (2012) used the notion of risk and resiliency factors when investigating pupil adjustment post-transfer. Using questionnaires with 130 pupils pre- and post-transfer and teacher reports at these times, teachers reported important resilience factors to be: feeling supported, being able to control their emotional stability and an increased ability to problem-solve and feeling that they were progressing academically. The highest risk identified was having English as a second language as well as those on free school meals. Bailey and Baines highlight;

It is clear that difficulties controlling emotions during this stressful time would be a hindrance in forming positive relationships. p60

As highlighted in previous research, such as that of Tobbell (2003), relationships are crucial to the feeling of belonging post-transfer. Due to the small number of pupils within the study and the absence of exploration of the effects of demographic variables the effect of such identified risks may have been overestimated in the study.

A longitudinal study by West, Sweeting and Young (2010) noted a diverse impact on longer- term effects of transfer to secondary school. Vulnerable groups, as identified by primary schools, surveyed over time, pre-transfer and up to age 15, through questionnaires and interviews found that individual characteristics were most the most important predictor to future success. Different primary schools attended did not affect this. This study suggests individual factors were central, but transfer is a process set within a complex social and societal setting.

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The evidence would suggest that the majority of pupils do succeed post-secondary school transfer, but a small minority do not. Possible risk and protective factors for individual pupils are considered in Section 2.5.