Importantly, research on environmental representation can be useful to verify changes in the landscape and their possible causes, understand the criteria involved in the selection and use of natural resources, elaborate on conservation strategies, conduct environmental diagnostics, and develop projects that take into account the views of the environment that different social actors have, among other implications.
A representation study can be a tool for the rapid assessment of long-term impacts on biodiversity, as it accesses the perceptions of people directly involved with an issue. However, it is noted that, in this case, for the recognition of changes in the environment in addition to good knowledge regarding the quantity or quality of the conditions or resources, a good reference for the “natural” state (without interference) of the environment is required. In this case, failure in communication between people of different age groups within the same community can cause a phenomenon known as shifting baseline. Knowledge of the initial conditions of the area under study is not transmitted from one generation to the next. Young people,
based on their personal experiences, take on a more recent and therefore different reference from that assumed by older people. The idea of a shifting baseline has been revised by Fernández-Llamazares et al. ( 2015 ). The authors suggest that to identify such a phenomenon, the existence of three criteria is necessary: (1) the studied environment should be characterized by a noticeable change, (2) age-related differences of perception of such a change must be verifi ed, and (3) scant commu- nication between people of different generations must be characterized.
By investigating changes over time in terms of the abundance of fi sh in an Angler’s extractive reserve, Bender et al. ( 2014 ) characterized the occurrence of shifting baseline based on the differences in responses related to experience in fi sh- ing activity. In this study, more experienced fi shermen could perceive a further reduction in the abundance of fi sh species exploited by fi shery activities. A good example of how people’s perceptions may interfere with actions aimed at conserva- tion is a case in which there is a clear relationship between the aesthetic perception that people have of wildlife and their willingness to preserve it. Pinho et al. ( 2014 ) consider that animals perceived as “beautiful” or “charismatic” have received more attention than other animals in conservation campaigns both by the general public and public managers. These authors found that, for some people, animals perceived as physically attractive and those identifi ed as a priority for conservation coincide. In contrast, animals that have an “ugly” perception are mentioned by some inter- viewees as justifi cation for a possible hostile attitude toward them.
References
Bartoshuk LM (2000) Comparing sensory experiences across individuals: recent psychophysical advances illuminate genetic variation in taste perception. Chem Sense 25:447–460
Bell S (2001) Landscape pattern, perception and visualization in the visual management of forest. Lands Urb Plan 54:201–211
Bender MG, Machado GR, Azevedo PJS et al. (2014) Local ecological knowledge and scientifi c data reveal overexploitation by multigear artisanal fi sheries in the Southwestern Atlantic. PloS One. e110332
Fernandes RS, Viegas R, Guanandy JV (2006) Avaliação do perfi l de cidadania de estudantes do ensino médio-técnico do CEFET-RJ. Rev Eletr Mest Ed Amb 17:195–213
Fernández-Llamazares Á, Díaz-Reviriego I, Luz AC et al (2015) Rapid ecosystem change chal- lenges the adaptive capacity of Local Environmental Knowledge. Global Environ Change 31:272–284
Gärling T, Golledge RG (1989) Environmental perception and cognition. In: Zube EH, Moore GT (eds) Advances in environment, behavior, and design, 2nd edn. Plenum, New York, NY, pp 203–236.
Gendlin ET (1997) Behavior and perception. In: Gendlin ET (ed) A process model. The Focusing Institute Present, Nyack, NY, pp 90–99
Höijer B (2011) Social representations theory: a new theory for media research. Nordicom Rev 32:3–16
Johns T (1990) With bitter herbs they shall eat it: chemical ecology and the origins of human diet and medicine. University of Arizona Press, Tucson
Pinho JR, Grilo C, Boone RB et al (2014) Infl uence of aesthetic appreciation of wildlife species on attitudes towards their conservation in kenyan agropastoralist communities. Plos One. e88842. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0088842
Tuan Y (1974) Topophilia: a study of environmental perception, attitudes, and values. Columbia University Press, New York
Silva TC, Cruz MP, Araújo TAS et al (2014) Methods in research of environmental perception. In: Cunha LVFC, Lucena RFP, Alves RRN, Albuquerque UP (eds) Methods and techniques in ethnobiology and ethnoecology. Springer, New York, pp 99–110
Stevenson A (2010) Oxford dictionary of English. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK Williams VL, Cunningham AB, Kemp AC et al. (2014) Risks to birds traded for African traditional
medicine: a quantitative assessment. PloS One. e105397
Zube EH (1999) Environmental perception. In: Finkl CW (ed) Encyclopedia of Earth science. Springer, New York, NY, pp 214–216
99 © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016
U.P. Albuquerque, R. Alves (eds.), Introduction to Ethnobiology, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-28155-1_15
Taline Cristina da Silva , Letícia Zenóbia de Oliveira Campos , Josivan Soares da Silva , Rosemary da Silva Sousa ,
and Ulysses Paulino Albuquerque
Abstract Perceptual processes are complex and are addressed by several disci-
plines. These processes are responsible for the ways that humans access the external world. Therefore, they infl uence the ways in which human beings appropriate envi- ronmental resources. Some studies have indicated that differences in intra- and intercultural perception, such as age, individual social role, and religion, may infl u- ence perceptions about nature. Thus, how certain factors affect human perception of nature, its use, and environmental resource appropriation will be discussed in this chapter.
The perceptual phenomenon is of fundamental importance for human survival in many types of environments: the act of perceiving allows one to feel what exists around oneself, allowing humans to respond to environmental stimuli (Gendlin 1997). Thus, throughout human evolutionary history, skills and perceptual functions were developed to ensure human survival in multiple environments (Garling and Golledge 1989). Effi ciency in detecting predators through the senses and identify- ing toxic substances through smell and taste were important to different cultures in the selection process of animals and plants for food and medicinal purposes. However, perceptual processes are not purely physiological but also sociocultural, as culturally experienced perceptual events can be stored in the memory (Garling and Golledge 1989). Furthermore, culture can act as giving sense to perception, such as animal species selection for different purposes due to their coloration. Thus, how different factors affect the way humans perceive and appropriate resources will be highlighted in this text.
T. C. da Silva , Ph.D. (*) • L. Z. de Oliveira Campos , Ph.D. • J. S. da Silva R. da Silva Sousa , Ph.D. • U. P. Albuquerque , Ph.D.
Laboratory of Applied and Theoretical Ethnobiology (LEA), Department of Biology , Federal Rural University of Pernambuco , Av. Dom Manoel de Medeiros, s/n, Dois Irmãos , 52171-900 Recife , Pernambuco , Brazil
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected];