Reflecting the country’s weariness with the war, a coali- tion of church and civic groups launched an appeal for peace. Nevertheless, fighting continued, and in a government offensive in February 2002, UNITA leader Jonas Savimbi was killed. His replacement, Antonio Demba, was also reported killed shortly thereafter. Savimbi’s death effectively ended UNITA’s military challenge to the government. The armed forces halted their offensive against UNITA in March 2002 and signed a memorandum of understanding with UNITA later that month. Shortly after that a cease-fire agree- ment was announced, and UNITA accepted the Lusaka agreement, ending the war.
Angola’s civil war also prompted intervention in neighboring countries. During the conflict in the former Zaire, now the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), the Angolan government supported rebels led by Laurent Kabila in their effort to oust Mobutu Sese Seko from power. Mobutu had allowed UNITA to use Zaire as a conduit for smuggling dia- monds and arms, and UNITA sent troops to support Mobutu in his effort to retain power. Angolan forces also offered military support after the August 1998 rebellion against Kabila. Angola finally withdrew its troops from the Democratic Republic of Congo in October 2002.
Angola also supported the former leader of the Republic of Congo, General Denis Sassou-Nguesso, in his effort to oust President Pascal Lissouba. This inter- vention was prompted by attacks by both the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC) and UNITA, operating from safe havens in Congo, against the Angolan enclave of Cabinda. Angolan support helped Sassou-Nguesso return to power. By mid-2003 the Angolan armed forces had reduced the threat in Angola 27
Cabinda to pockets of resistance in the north, and FLEC indicated its willingness to negotiate a peace agreement that would guarantee the enclave autonomy. The gov- ernment also indicated a willingness to negotiate, but the rebellion collapsed with the defection of 18 former FLEC officers to the Angolan armed forces.
The System of
Government
In theory Angola is a multiparty democracy, although decades of civil war have prevented the genuine estab- lishment of any such government. In practice, since the end of the civil war in 2002, the country has oper- ated as a one-party state under the authoritarian rule of Jose Eduardo dos Santos.
EXECUTIVE
The president is directly elected by a secret ballot for a term of five years and may be reelected for two con- secutive or nonconsecutive terms. The president is the head of state, head of government, and commander in chief of the armed forces. He or she also has the power to appoint and dismiss the prime minister, the cabinet ministers, and other government officials, to appoint the Supreme Court judges, to preside over the Council of Ministers, to declare war and make peace with the authorization of the National Assembly, to preside over the National Defense Council, to declare a state of siege or emergency, to announce the holding of general elections, issue pardons, and commute sentences, and to perform all other duties specified by the constitu- tion. The president and head of state is Jose Eduardo
dos Santos, and the prime minister is Fernando de Piedade Dias dos Santos.
LEGISLATURE
The National Assembly is made up of 220 deputies elected for a term of four years. The government is responsible to the National Assembly. The National Assembly meets twice a year and in special sessions when convened by the president or on the initiative of the Standing Commission of the National Assembly or of no less than one-third of the deputies. The Standing Commission represents the National Assembly and exercises legislative powers between sessions. Angola’s first multiparty democratic elections in 1992 produced the following distribution of seats:
Party Seats
MPLA-PT 129 UNITA 70 Social Renewal Party 6 National Front for the Liberation of Angola 5 Liberal Democratic Party 3
Angolan Democratic Forum, Angolan National Democratic Party, Democratic Alliance of Angola, Democratic Party for Progress–Angolan National Alliance, Democratic Renewal Party, Party of the Alliance of Youths, Workers, and Farmers, and the Social Democratic Party—1 seat each (Three seats set aside for overseas Angolans were not filled).
The renewal of civil war by UNITA precluded both the runoff election scheduled for 1992 and all subse-
quent elections. President dos Santos pledged to hold legislative elections in 2006.
JUDICIARY
According to the constitution, the organization, com- position, and competence of the courts shall be estab- lished by law. Judges are to be independent in their duties. There is a constitutional court that can rule on legal and constitutional matters and consists of seven judges, three of whom are nominated by the presi- dent, three elected by the National Assembly, and one elected by a full session of the Supreme Court. In addi- tion to the Supreme Court, there are also provincial courts and municipal courts. Supreme Court judges are appointed by the president.
REGIONAL AND LOCAL
GOVERNMENT
Angola is divided into 18 provinces, each headed by a provincial assembly that consists of 55 to 85 deputies. The executive bodies of the provincial assemblies are the provincial governments, led by provincial gover- nors who are answerable to the provincial assemblies, the council of ministers, and the president. The prov- inces are further subdivided into councils, communes, circles, neighborhoods, and villages.
The Electoral System
Prior to the 1992 elections the MPLA and UNITA agreed to a proportional representation system. Under this system each province is represented by five members. The remaining 130 deputies are elected at the national level according to propor- tional representation. All citizens age 18 and older are eligible to vote.
The Party System
Since the end of the civil war in 2002 Angola has been an authoritarian state under the rule of one party, the Popular Liberation Movement of Angola (MPLA) led by President dos Santos. The party has endorsed multi- party elections, the next of which is to occur in 2006, but no party has enough power to present a challenge. UNITA, the second party in influence, is now part of the MPLA ruling coalition.