Research methods are concerned with the means by which data of the investigated phenomena can be collected and/or analysed (Creswell, 2003, p. 17), with research
approaches being either: qualitative and quantitative in nature (Creswell, 1994). Strauss and Corbin (1990, p. 18) argued that most of the research projects, and researchers, place an emphasis on one or the another “partly out of conviction, but also because of training and the nature of the problem studied”. Although it is acceptable to use a combination of the two, each of the two approaches has its own nature, required skill set and specific assumptions (Creswell, 1994, p. 5). The next part of this section outlines the nature and the basic elements of qualitative and quantitative methods.
4.4.1 Qualitative research methods
Philosophically the qualitative paradigm is an alternative term for a phenomenological paradigm (Hussey and Hussey, 1997, p. 77) and it is defined as “[a] paradigm which assumes that social reality is in our minds; a reaction to the positivistic paradigm. Therefore, the act of investigating reality has an effect on that reality and considerable regard is paid to the subjective state of the individual” (Hussey and Hussey, 1997, p. 77). The previous definition emphasises that qualitative methodology is usually used where a researcher believes that social reality is subjective (Creswell, 1994, p. 5). Strauss and Corbin (1990, p. 17) state that the qualitative research can refer to an investigation about individuals’ lives, stories, behaviour, organisational functioning, social movements, or interactional relationships. Under its umbrella, the term ‘qualitative methods’ has many techniques such as: case study; participatory inquiry; visual methods; participant observation; descriptive observation; and unstructured and semi – structured interviewing (Taylor and Bogdan, 1984; Denzin and Lincoln, 2003). Denzin and Lincoln (2003, p. 5) emphasise that the qualitative research involves gathering various empirical materials that describe problematic moments and meanings in the live routine of the individuals. As a result, qualitative researchers organise multi types of interconnected interpretive practices, seeking to get a better understanding of the subject investigated phenomena (Denzin and Lincoln, 2003, p. 3).
Through the qualitative research process, the researcher often obtains the first hand knowledge of the social phenomena by listening to people expressing what is on their minds, therefore, qualitative methods will never be reliable in the way that this is
often considered in the natural science (Creswell, 1998, p. 201).62 Qualitative researchers are generally concerned with ‘accurate description’, therefore, they develop a description of the phenomena, analyse data for themes, and present an interpretation or conclusion from the data (Creswell, 2003, p. 182).
Some qualitative researchers are also concerned with building theory, as they believe that reality will be more understood if it is theoretically informed (Diesing, 1971; Glaser, 1978). Qualitative researchers who are concerned with building theory through ‘doing description’ also believe that “theories represent the most systematic way of building, synthesising, and integrating scientific knowledge” (Strauss and Corbin, 1990, p. 22).
4.4.2 Quantitative research methods
A quantitative methodology is often (but not always) based on the nomothetic philosophical assumptions of social science. Flick (1998, p. 2) observed that the quantitative approach has been used to isolate causes and effects of operationalising theoretical relations, as well as measuring and quantifying social phenomena and arriving at generalisation of findings. In contrast to the qualitative approach (which emphasises the qualities of entities and on processes and meanings that are not experimentally examined or measured in terms of quantity, amount or frequency), the quantitative approach emphasise the measurement and analysis of underlying relationships between the variables (Denzin and Lincoln, 2003, p. 13).63
The quantitative approach seeks the knowledge through various methods such as: questionnaires, inventories and other empirical methods and materials (Denzin and Lincoln, 2003, p. 16). Quantitative researchers in general tend to use ‘empirical
62 Hussey and Hussey (1997, p. 78) define validity as “the extent to which the research findings accurately represent what is really happening in the situation”. One of the key characteristics of qualitative research is the high level of validity, since the research takes place in the natural setting - usually the researcher conducts this research in the site being researched such as, the office, the home (Creswell, 2003, p. 181). Creswell (1998, p. 201) suggested a full approach of verification process instead of validity because verification underscores qualitative research as a distinct approach, and a legitimate mode of investigation in its own right. This frame had been developed relying on the earlier work of (Lincoln and Guba 1995; Latter 1991, 1993). For more details see Creswell (1998).
63 In this context, Hussey and Hussey (1997, p. 20) simply define the quantitative research as “[a]n objective approach which includes collecting and analysing numerical data and applying statistical tests”. In the quantitative research approach, reliability of the research tools is verifiable. Reliability in this context means “being able to obtain the same results if the research were to be repeated by any researcher” (Hussey and Hussey, 1997, p. 78).
evidence’ that relies on the data which based on observation or experience and often this process allows testing of existing conceptual and theoretical structures (Creswell, 2003, p. 18). Thus, knowledge could be obtained through using the deductive approach (which emphasises on deducting the particular instances from general inferences- see Hussey and Hussey, 1997, p. 19).64
4.4.3 Mixed methods approach
Both types of research (qualitative and quantitative) can be, and have been used in the same study (Easterby – Smith et al., 1991; Flick, 1998; Creswell, 2003). It is also likely that research projects lie somewhere on the continuum between the quantitative and qualitative approaches (Newman and Benz, 1998 in Creswell, 2003, p. 4). Creswell (2003) writes of a Mixed Methods Approach that employs “strategies of inquiry that involve collecting data either simultaneously or sequentially to best understand research problems” (Creswell, 2003, p. 18). This approach involves gathering the data of a numerical nature (such as measurements and instruments) and a text basis (such as interviews) with research database containing both quantitative and qualitative information (Creswell, 2003, p. 20). Table 4.4 illustrates nature of the three research approaches in respects of data collection and analysis process.
Table 4.4 Quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods procedures Quantitative research methods Qualitative research methods Mixed methods - Predetermined
- Instrument based questions - Performance data, attitude data, observational data, and census data - Statistical analysis - Emerging methods - Open-ended questions - Interview data, observation data, document data, and audiovisual data
- Text and image analysis
- Both predetermined and emerging methods - Both open- and closed- ended questions
- Multiple forms of data drawing on all possibilities - Statistical and text analysis Source: Creswell (2003, p. 17)
64 This process concentrates on measurement and analysis of relationships between the variables, through testing the hypotheses. Therefore, quantitative researchers usually tend to use mathematical models, statistical tables, and graphs, as well as writing about their investigation impersonal (Creswell, 1994; Denzin and Lincoln, 2003).