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When used as an alcoholic tincture the addition of mucilage of acacia or tragacanth (12.5%) to act as a suspension for the resin was recommended. Kaladana (Pharbitis seed) from Ipomoea hederacea could be used as a substitute for Jalap. However, adulteration of the commercial product was a common occurrence – Ipomoea muricata, Crotalaria juncea, Acacia arabica, Peganum harmala and Ocimum basilicum were sometimes sold as Kaladana.

Details regarding Jalap (under Exogonium purga) were given by the American Eclectic herbalist Harvey Wicks Felter, who noted the following regarding its irritant potential:

Large doses produce violent hypercatharsis, sometimes resulting in death. It is a safe and thorough cathartic when no inflammation of the gastro-intestinal tract exists, and may be used where a derivative action, with full stools, is indicated. In small doses (5 grains daily) it may be employed to relieve constipation due to inactivity of the intestinal glands or where hard fecal masses are impacted in the rectum. Movements are facilitated by the secretion induced. It is a useful revulsive¹⁴ in cerebral congestion, and may be used in haemorrhoidal conditions with constipation when a stimulating cathartic cannot be employed. The chief use of jalap is for the relief of dropsy [abnormal fluid accumulation under the skin] from any cause. It is commonly used with cream of tartar, which increases both the cathartic and diuretic effects. It should not

be given for any great length of time, for the depletion finally has a depressing effect on the heart. Though contraindicated in inflammation of the intestinal tube, it may be used when there is inflammation of the biliary apparatus, and when a cathartic is needed at the onset of fevers. The Antibilious Physic and that modification of the compound powder as advised by Locke¹⁵ are desirable forms in which to use Jalap. Jalap alone purges in about 3 to 4 hours.

The South American species that has been exploited commercially as Orizaba Jalap or Mexican Scammony Root is Ipomoea orizabensis. Orizaba was originally used as an adulterant of Mexican or Vera Cruz Jalap (or the resin ‘jalapin’ from Ipomoea purga) but its resin was more ether-soluble than that of Jalap.¹⁶ Its properties were similar to that of Scammony resin from Convolvulus scammonia roots. Orizaba Jalap extracted with 90% alcohol yielded a 10–20% complex resinous mixture (65% soluble in either). Mexican Jalap (Ipomoea purga) contained 9–18% resin, extracted from the powdered root by boiling with 90% alcohol. The Tinctura Jalapae from Phillips’ Translation of the

Pharmacopoeia Londonensis, 1841.

14 In medical terms a revulsive is a counter-irritant agent that acts to promote blood flow to an area and thereby promote circulation. It may also have an anti-inflammatory effect.

15 Ginger was added to the mixture to prevent griping side-effects.

16 Two fractions of importance have been determined from the resin:

jalapin (ether-soluble) and convolvulin (ether-insoluble)

Flowering Ipomoea hederacea vine. Henry Burkill mentions that some controversy surrounded the medicinal value of Ipomoea hederacea seeds which, in 1868, were ‘made official in Indian Pharmacopoeia.

Their efficacy having been questioned, the Indigenous Drugs Committee made a fresh inquiry and in their second report, where the previous knowledge was confirmed, stated that … there is absolutely nothing to prevent their use for jalap.’ (Image courtesy: SB Johnny, Wikimedia Commons Project)

concentrated tincture was then poured into water and the precipitated resin collected, washed and dried. Resins sourced from the Convolvulaceae are extremely complex and they could not be isolated in a pure form until recently. Jalap was therefore formerly used as a standardised powder known as Jalap resin or Jalapin (Evans 2002).

A number of other medicinal plants have been utilised as a source of Jalap. The Indian Jalap (Operculina turpethum, syns Ipomoea turpethum, Convolvulus turpethum) is a tropical viny weed that was an effective Ipomoea purga, Mexican or Vera Cruz Jalap, Kohler’s

Medicinal Plants, 1887.

Scammony (Convolvulus scammonia) from Kohler’s Medicinal Plants, 1887.

Confection of Scammony, from Phillips’ Translation of the Pharmacopoeia of the Royal College of Physicians of London, 1836.

Compound Scammony Pill, from British Pharmacopoeia 1867.

for ‘emaciated and debilitated children’. In addition, an aphrodisiac prescription macerated the root in its own juice, which was then taken with honey and clarified butter¹⁹ (Quisumbing 1951).

Illustration by Johannes Scharf of Ipomoea cairica (under I. stipulacea) from Nicolai Josephi Jacquin, Plantarum Rariorum Horti Caesarei Schoenbrunnensis Descriptiones et Icones, Vol. 2 (1797–1804). In Australia the Railway Creeper (Ipomoea cairica), which is usually found behind beaches or along creeks, is regarded as a weedy native vine although it is possibly a pre-European introduction. It is closely related to the decorative seaside Goat’s-foot Convolvulus (Ipomoea pes-caprae). The bitter tuber and stems of the Railway Creeper were regarded as being edible in Hawaii (Burkill 1985). In Australia, where the plant is known as Mile-a-Minute, Aboriginal people also utilised the tuber for food.

The plant has some value as a fibre source for making rope or sponges – as well as purgative effects similar to that of a number of other Ipomoea species (Cribb & Cribb 1981).

substitute for the strongly purgative Mexican or Vera Cruz Jalap (Ipomoea purga). It is native to South-east Asia, India and the Pacific Islands, ranging to tropical Australia, as well as being found in tropical Africa. The vine has attractive white bell-like flowers and distinctive broad heart-shaped leaves. FM Bailey commented: ‘[it was] another large climbing species of our tropical coast, and also of India. It is said that the fresh bark rubbed up with milk is used in India as a purgative. About 6 inches in length of the root as thick as the little finger is reckoned a dose’

(Bailey 1880). Indian authorities noted that the white variety was employed in preference to the black, as the purgative effects of the latter were considered too drastic¹⁷ (Kapoor 1990).

Ipomoea digitata (syns I. paniculata¹⁸, Convolvulus paniculata) has long been valued in Indian medicine as a tonic and rejuvenative remedy. Jalapin is present in the root and, while it doubtless has purgative potential, the herb does not seem to have been utilised in this manner to any great extent. Henry Burkill (1935) provides details of its therapeutic reputation: ‘It is medicinal in India and has been so since Sanskrit times, and the mucilaginous bitter roots are stocked in the bazaars. They are somewhat purgative, and are considered to have a tonic action. They are given for diseases of the spleen, for menorrhagia and debility; as a cholagogue and galactagogue. Apparently the plant has the same medicinal uses in the Philippine islands.’ Other authors mentioned the use of this remedy in a number of recipes. The sundried root, powdered and boiled with sugar and butter had ‘the effect of promoting obesity and moderating menstrual discharge’

(Quisumbing 1951). A confection which combined the powdered root, wheat flour, barley, milk, ghee, sugar and honey, was regarded as having restorative properties

17 There are two botanical sources of the drug known as Nishoth in Indian markets: Marsdenia tenacissima (White Nishoth) and Ipomoea turpethum (Black Nishoth). They could be distinguished chemically as scopoletin was characteristic of the latter. Marsdenia contains a different alkaloid (Joshi 1994).

18 Just to add to the confusion regarding Ipomoea botanical names, I. paniculata was formerly included as a synonym of I. digitata. However, it is now regarded as being synonymous with Jacquemontia paniculata. Both vines belong to the Convolvulaceae, although they are quite different in appearance, with the latter having much smaller white or light purple flowers.

19 There is another traditional aphrodisiac compound preparation that is much more complex: the dried root (macerated 14 times in its own juice) was fried in butter with almonds, quince seeds, cloves, cardamom, nutmeg, shatavari (Asparagus racemosus), gokhru (Tribulus terrestris), Mucua pruriens (seed), muesli etc. and made into a conserve with sugar. This was taken dissolved in milk (Nadkarni 1954).

The Common Morning Glory (Ipomoea purpurea) is an ornamental vine that can be found naturalised in New South Wales and southern Queensland.

Ipomoea digitata and I.

mauritiana have been listed as synonyms, and details regarding their medicinal qualities are virtually identical in many texts.

Images of the plant also appear indistinguishable. The literature, in the main, appears to refer to Ipomoea mauritiana, to which the name I. digitata has been incorrectly applied.

Identification can only truly be settled by knowing the origins of the plant. Ipomoea digitata is endemic to West India (not Asia or Australia).

Ipomoea mauritiana has a more widespread distribution:

tropical Africa, Australasia, the Pacific Islands, and Central America. (With thanks to Brendan Lepschi and Robert Johnson for sorting out this tangled botanical puzzle.)

Ipomoea digitata. (Courtesy: Dr Ganesh, www.

ayurvediccommunity.com)

Operculina turpethum. (Courtesy: JM Garg, Wikipedia)

Onion Vine, Operculina turpethum (formerly Ipomoea turpethum, Convolvulus turpethum) is native to the Northern Territory and Queensland, and is naturalised in Western Australia. Onion Vine tuber has been utilised as a roasted vegetable in Western Australia. Edward Palmer (1883) provided additional details:‘The seeds are large and black, enclosed in a transparent skin, generally three or four, smooth, with the angles rounded. The young buds are eaten raw when the seeds are white. They are very plentiful after the wet season, and are gathered by white people and boiled for peas.’ The fresh seeds of Ipomoea heterophylla could also provide a useful snack, although the latter were avoided when fully ripe (Johnston & Cleland 1948). This could possibly be linked to their purgative potential.

As well as the Onion Vine, there are four other tropical Australian species:

•  Operculina sp. Cotton Island, from the Northern Territory, which remains botanically unclassified;

•  Operculina aequisepala and O. brownii from northern Australia (Western Australia, Northern Territory, Queensland);

•  Operculina riedeliana, which ranges from northern Queensland overseas to Papua New Guinea and Malesia.

Onion Vine or Indian Jalap (Operculina turpethum)

Species

(distribution) Details of purgative attributes; medicinal uses and investigations Ipomoea cairica

(syns I. palmata, I.

tuberculata)

Railway or Railroad Creeper Australia: ranges from the northern tropics to Western Australia, South Australia and New South Wales; also found throughout the tropics, from tropical Africa to Asia and the Pacific Islands

Purgative activity

Seeds: strong purgative and were used as such in India and Nigeria. The effect was probably due to a mixture of compounds, although muricatin A appears to be the main active component (Burkill 1985).

Medicinal use

• Crushed leaves: used for treating body rashes, particularly if associated with fevers. The herb had useful absorbent healing qualities which provided an eye remedy in Senegal - a bundle of the plant boiled in water applied as a warm sponge to wash the eyes (Burkill 1985).

• Fiji: liquid squeezed from leaves: dysentery. Bone fracture, leaves squeezed and heated and applied locally; plant also used for relief of intestinal cramps (Weiner 1985).

Investigations

• Extracts: showed strong antibiotic activity, although this was not found to be consistent (Burkill 1985; Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).

• Extracts of the seed and flowers have shown antifungal activity; while the leaves contained ergoline alkaloids (ergosinine, and a mixture of ergocornine and ergocristine) (Satyavati 1987).

Ipomoea mauritiana (syns I.

digitata, I. paniculata) Giant Potato

Australia: northern tropics;

also found in tropical Africa, the Pacific Islands, South-east Asia and India, Central America.

Botanical note: The name Ipomoea digitata has been misapplied to this species in Australia and many other places. It can be quite difficult (if not impossible) to differentiate between these two plants in the literature. Therefore the names are utilised as per the referenced material with notes as is appropriate.

Purgative activity I. mauritiana

• Contains a resin resembling Jalap.

• Africa: tuberous root employed as a purgative. This property extends to the leaves, which are not edible, although they have been utilised in soup as a purgative and diuretic remedy on the Ivory Coast (Burkill 1985).

I. digitata

• Stem and leaf extracts of contain organic acids, glycosidic acids (quamoclinic acid A and operculinic acid A) and a number of resin glycosides, e.g. digitajalapin (Ono 2009; Masateru 2009).

• Comment: resin glycosides (Ipomotaosides A–D) from Sweet Potato (I. batatas) aerial parts have shown anti-inflammatory potential (Yoshikawa 2010). This suggests that these resins may have additional pharmacological properties about which we are currently unaware.

Medicinal use I. mauritiana

• Dried and powdered roots: used as an abortifacient in Senegal, although in other parts of Africa its use was avoided by pregnant women. It therefore seems somewhat odd that the decoction was employed on the Ivory Coast as an enema for female sterility, as well as being taken as a tonic during pregnancy or to avoid miscarriage, and for treating kidney pain (Burkill 1985).

• Nigeria: the root was similarly utilised as a tonic, alterative and aphrodisiac. The root stock mixed with palm wine was also used by nursing mothers as a galactagogue (to promote milk production) (Burkill 1985).

• Comment: Fresh Sweet Potato plants (I. batatas) have a similar reputation as a galactagogue in northern Peru (Bussmann & Glenn 2010).

I. digitata

The herb has expectorant, diuretic, demulcent, lactagogue (breast milk inducing) and cholagogue properties, as well as being used for treating fevers, bronchitis, liver disorders and heart weakness (Moushumi 2010; Satyavati 1987).

Investigations I. mauritiana

• Alcoholic extracts of rhizome had central nervous system depressant effects, anti-amphetamine activity and induced hypothermia (lowered temperature) in mice. However no antiprotozoal, anthelmintic, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, diuretic, hypoglycaemic or cerebrovascular activity was demonstrated (Satyavati 1976).

• Later studies confirmed hypoglycaemic and hypocholesterolaemic activity (Moushumi 2010).

• Comment: This would seem to indicate the presence of different compounds that can predominate in different forms of extract.

I. digitata

• Tuber: an ether-soluble fraction of the tuber extract contained substances with hypotensive and muscle relaxant properties. However, an ether-insoluble fraction had opposing effects:

Table 3.1 Medicinal uses of Convolvulaceae plants found in Australia with