rative Knowledge Construction
Knowledge often remains inert. Recent instructional approaches therefore have aimed to facilitate applicable knowledge (e.g., Dochy et al., in press). Applicable knowledge has been considered as knowledge as co- construct, and as individually acquired knowledge (Fischer et al., 2000; Salomon & Perkins, 1998). Furthermore, qualitatively different levels of applicable knowledge can be pointed out as being focused or multi- perspective. Learners may apply knowledge to central aspects of a problem or consider various sub-problems. These forms of applicable knowledge have been regarded to as being particularly facilitated by collaborative knowledge construction.
With respect to applicable knowledge, a knowledge-in-use metaphor has been taken into consideration (De Jong & Fergusson-Hessler, 1996). Knowledge is not described as a definitive object of mind, but rather as an activity state of cognitive structures when individuals or groups perform tasks. The authors themselves of this approach qualify the selectivity of some types and qualities of knowledge. Some qualities of knowledge over- lap or contain a range of sub-concepts (e.g., deep knowledge is character- ized by multiple perspectives). De Jong and Fergusson-Hessler’s (1996) matrix may therefore be regarded to as a non-deterministic scheme. This scheme allocates various forms of knowledge with the aim to systematize the many concepts of knowledge. Thus construct inflation can be reduced and researchers can be facilitated to share conceptions of what knowledge means. In this way, focused and multi-perspective applicable knowledge can be specified as knowledge variant in depth and structure.
Another limitation regarding the notion of knowledge-in-use is that it is to some extent self-referential. Similar to the circular idea that intelli- gence equals its measurement (Boring, 1923), knowledge-in-use could be defined by its measurement. This concept reflects some of the uncertainty of research about knowledge. Indeed, the individual knowledge types are asso- ciated with typical measurements, such as multiple choice tests for concep- tual knowledge, or complex problem tasks for applicable knowledge.
4
Instructional Support for
Collaborative Knowledge
Construction: Cooperation Scripts
for CSCL Environments
A vast amount of energy and resources has been invested in the last decade to develop and establish CSCL in schools and universities (e.g., connecting schools to internet – “Schulen ans Netz”-initiative in Germany). Typically, computers have been adapted to traditional classroom practices. In this way, computers have not been systematically utilized to improve educational practices based on approaches and findings of educational psy- chology (Gräsel & Fischer, 2000). Regarding the use of computers for the improvement of education CSCL approaches based on media are needed on one hand. These approaches consider the specifics of CSCL environments in order to realize instructional support. On the other hand, instructional ap-
proaches with an educational psychological background are needed. These
approaches utilize knowledge that has been acquired through decades of research on collaborative knowledge construction.
Some instructional approaches aim to establish beneficial conditions for learning together such as training the individual learner to cooperate in order to facilitate collaborative knowledge construction (King, 1994; Rum- mel & Spada, in press; Webb & Farivar, 1994). However, training of col- laborative skills has been argued to be costly and impractical in CSCL envi- ronments (Weinberger, Reiserer, Ertl, Fischer, & Mandl, in press). Some of these training programs, for instance, take more time than the actual col- laboration of learners (e.g., Hytecker, Dansereau, & Rocklin, 1988). Fur- thermore, online learners may not be able to participate in FTF training pro- grams.
There are alternatives to establishing beneficial prior conditions. Process characteristics that influence collaborative knowledge construction
can be identified in order to conceptualize direct instructional support for these processes. Based on socio-cognitive perspectives, specific social and cognitive processes can be identified as essential characteristics of collabo- rative knowledge construction. There are a number of instructional ap- proaches aiming towards specific processes of collaborative knowledge construction (e.g., King, 1999). However, there is little systematic research on how CSCL environments may be designed based on approaches of edu- cational psychology to facilitate knowledge construction.
Instructional approaches to facilitate social and cognitive processes in CSCL environments can be based on acknowledged approaches of edu- cational psychology. In this way, instructional support can be conceptual- ized, which does not only aim to compensate differences between CMC and FTF discussions, but to facilitate specific social and cognitive processes. The medium may not be deficient per se in comparison to FTF discourse. Instead, text-based CMC may afford and constrain activities in ways that can be detrimental or beneficial to collaborative knowledge construction. The medium can therefore be understood as a natural resource for collabo- rative knowledge construction. Instructional support may aim to exploit this resource and simultaneously sublate the limitations of CSCL.
In this chapter, media-based instructional approaches specific to CSCL will be discussed first. Second, functions of CSCL environments, which facilitate collaborative knowledge construction, will be introduced. Third, cooperation script approaches will be introduced in detail as a theo- retical background rooted in educational psychology for facilitating collabo- rative knowledge construction in CSCL environments. Next, implementa- tion of cooperation scripts into CSCL environments will be discussed. Sub- sequently, social and epistemic cooperation scripts will be introduced as instructional support that can be realized in CSCL environments. Finally, problematic aspects of the cooperation script approach will be discussed.