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The Capabilities Approach is an approach that focuses on issues of human vulnerability and it is increasingly being developed to address human needs in a more positive way than other approaches to date. This approach has been specifically designed to focus on the ‘world’s neediest’ and most impoverished people (Nussbaum, 2001, 2). Nussbaum is a humanist who is emphatic about the idea that every individual is entitled to be treated with dignity. Human capabilities are about ‘what people are actually able to do and to be’ (Nussbaum, 2001, 3). There is more to the concept of capability than economics; it is to exercise one’s full ‘human powers’ with dignity and to have the freedom and thought to do it. No human being should be in a subordinate position to another human being: ‘to treat a person as a mere object for the use of others’ is exploitation (Nussbaum, 2001, 3). One’s own humanity can die when a person has no dignity or choice (Nussbaum, 2001). The ultimate goal is that each individual is ‘worthy of regard’ (Nussbaum, 2001, 6). We ‘badly need a richer, more humanistic, more values-oriented approach to development and quality of life assessment, if development is really to be a normative concept, meaning that things get better’ (Nussbaum, 2001, 6).

The Capabilities Approach is a new theoretical paradigm which is grounded in the commitment of equal dignity for all regardless of class, gender or ethnic group (Nussbaum, 2011b). People’s ideas are their own responsibility; they own their ideas, which are part of critical thinking. It is both a ‘comparative account of the quality of life and a theory of basic social justice’ (Nussbaum, 2011, 23b). The Capabilities Approach is attracting world-wide attention, particularly in developed economics and

77 in public policy. The core approach is a basic social justice approach which uses critical but respectful argument.

The capability/capabilities attached to each right ensure that the final goal benefits the individual. Some States provide entitlements but do not help to implement them (Nussbaum, 2003). The barriers that prevent actions need to be removed, particularly for marginalised groups. Critical thinking is an essential humanistic ability in the promotion of human development (Nussbaum, 2009). Education for human development begins with the idea of ‘equal respect for all human beings and equal entitlement of all to a range of central human opportunities’ (Nussbaum, 2009, 8). This is a ‘profound egalitarian and critical component’ of development education (Nussbaum, 2009, 8).The Capabilities Approach theorises basic social justice and is wholly concerned with ingrained inequality and social injustice. In her theory, Nussbaum (2011a) outlines ten common capabilities or main principles. These are

1. Life – to be able to live to the end of human life; 2. Health - to have good health, nourishment and shelter;

3. Bodily Integrity – to be able to move freely without assault of any kind;

4. Senses, Imagination and Thought – to be able to use one’s senses and thought processes;

5. Emotions – to freely reciprocate love and attention with others; 6. Practical Reasoning – to be critically reflective about one’s life;

7. Affiliation - to have the opportunity to socially engage with others on an equal basis;

8. Other Species - to be at one with nature; 9. Play - to enjoy recreational play;

10. A - Control Over One’s Environment – to be politically active including areas such as freedom of speech and freedom of association etc.; B - Control Over One’s Environment – to have rights to property

(Nussbaum, 1999, 41-42).

Each of these capabilities holds a particular value. A number of these principles are more readily applicable to the western concept of social justice, democracy and social thinking and particularly relevant to this thesis. These principles include: ‘to be treated with dignity and equal worth by all’, to have the opportunity to engage in the planning

78 of one’s life, to have political freedom of expression and finally to have access to political process (Nussbaum, 2011, 33-34a).

The dominant theory of justice in western societies is social contract theory, which is based on mutual advantages between the State and the individual. On a global scale, this is not applicable because it generates inequalities, according to Nussbaum (2011a). The term ‘integration’ is associated with numerous theories or approaches to the migration management process but the overall term is usually based on a social contract between the State and those within that State. There are certain rules and regulations that all residents, including the indigenous and migrant populations are subject to. Healy (2007) states that this theory rests on the interests of the ‘common good’ (Healy, 2007, 11) and that each individual benefits in some way. In theory, the social contract ‘by definition must be free from coercion’, yet many existing integration theories are ‘in fact obligatory’ (Healy, 2007, 11). All parties or groups of people within a society must agree to the conditions of the social contract governing that society. In Ireland in particular, the social contract highlights the inequalities among migrant groups who contribute to the Irish tax system, yet simultaneously are denied access to public services such as education and social welfare services. This highlights the principle concept of ‘biopolitics’ used by Lentin (2006). The ‘principle of equality of rights and duties underpins integration and citizenship policies in most immigration countries’ (Healy, 2017, 12). Healy (2007) argues that the process of integration is a mutual adjustment between the host country and the migrant (2007, 12). The migrant groups are accepted into society with an increased sense of belonging. Nonetheless, the overall ‘integration’ process is quite a complex affair.

There is a general expectation under the contact theory that one State should profit by helping another State (Nussbaum, 2003, 4b). Nussbaum (2003b) argues that one State should help another because of ‘human fellowship’ (2003, 4b). Social contract theory assumes that each country has the same power and resources etc. but this is not the case. There are major inequalities between countries, between different groups within countries (2003b) and between genders (Nussbaum, 1999). The dominant theory of justice is based on ‘human fellowship and human respect in a more expansive sense’ (Nussbaum, 2004, 12). There are people who have been denied certain opportunities that are freely available to other groups in society. Eventually these people end up denying that they want these ‘goods’ in the first place (Nussbaum, 2011a). This is

79 more or less the result of internalising a second class status. Basically, the capabilities approach allows each individual to analyse their own capabilities and this approach is designed to support each person’s full potential (Nussbaum, 2011a). Education is at the heart of the capabilities approach and allows for the development of numerous important internal capabilities. The formation of internal capabilities is:

valuable in itself and a source of lifelong satisfaction. It is also pivotal to the development and exercise of many other human capabilities: a “fertile functioning” of the highest importance in addressing disadvantage and inequality

(Nussbaum, 2011, 152a).

Education greatly enhances employment opportunities, political participation, and social and civic interaction, at a local, national and global level. Education is a basic fundamental right and one that has received considerable attention in a myriad of international treaty commitments such as Article 2 of the European Convention on Human Rights (1950) which states that: ‘no person shall be denied the right to education’ (European Convention on Human Rights, 1950). Other international treaty commitments include Article 26 of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights (1948), Article 14 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights (EU, 2000/C 364/01), Article 5 and Article 26 of the United Nations General Assembly (1948). The right to education is widely regarded as fundamental and is also enshrined in Article 42 of the Constitution of Ireland (1937). The World Conference on Human Rights (1993) recommended that education should develop the full personality and character of the individual (United Nations General Assembly (A/51/506), (1996). There are numerous treaty Articles on the right to education. Other international treaty Articles are further outlined in section 2.15 of this chapter.

People are the greatest societal asset and ultimately human development is important (Nussbaum, 2011a). This approach takes into account people’s different social positions in each society and the opportunities individuals are presented with. This approach is a basic social justice approach founded in human dignity. However, the idea of freedom may at times be contradictory; for example, a business that freely pollutes the atmosphere is interfering with other citizens’ freedom to enjoy an ‘unpolluted environment’ (Nussbaum, 2003b, 44). Some freedoms are central freedoms, while other freedoms are not if they negatively impact other people.

80 All societies that pursue a reasonably just political conception have to

evaluate human freedoms, saying that some are central and some trivial, some good and some actively bad. This evaluation affects the way we will access an abridgement of a freedom

(Nussbaum, 2011, 45-46b).

Any society that allows a freedom to insult another person, for example, the freedom of an employer to discriminate on the grounds of race, is allowing a fundamental injustice (Nussbaum, 2003, 46) so the content of each freedom needs to be examined in this respect. Sen (1979) is another theorist whose ideas are steeped in the potential of human freedom. Sen (1999) also suggests that capabilities are substantive human freedoms (Sen, 1999). Freedom is about removing the ‘unfreedoms’ that prevent people and groups of people living in the way they desire. What use are political freedoms on paper when in practice people are prevented from enjoying the freedom? (Sen, 1979). Inequality is endemic everywhere (Sen 1979). One of the most fundamental aspects contrary to human dignity is racism. The history and development of racism in Ireland is somewhat different from the development of racism in the UK due to a number of unique factors. The next section reviews the origin of Irish racism.