Capítulo V: Estudio legal y organizacional
5.2. Estudio organizacional
5.2.3. Descripción de puestos de trabajo
1) Future investigations should identify sources and define the mechanisms of elevated circulating IFN-γ levels among HIV-1 and TB co-infected IDUs.
2) Define mechanisms through which ART restores IFN-γ production among HIV-1 infected ART-experienced IDUs for improving therapeutic options in this population.
3) Perform a longitudinal study comparing different HAART regimens among IDUs in order to identify the contributions of each drug upon the cytokine profiles.
REFERENCES
Abbas, A.K., Murphy, K.M., & Sher, A. (1996). Functional diversity of T- helper lymphocytes. Nature Journal, 383:787–793.
Aceijas, C., Stimson, G.V., Hickman, M., & Rhodes, T. (2004). Global overview of injecting drug use and HIV infection among injecting drug users. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 18:2295-2303.
Adamsczak, M., & Wiecek, A. (2013). The adipose tissue as an endocrine organ. Seminars in Nephrology Journal, 33:2-13.
Adamsczak, M., Chudek, J., & Wiecek, A. (2009). Adiponectin in patients with chronic kidney disease. Seminars in Dialysis Journal, 22:391-395.
Addy, C.L., Gavrila, A., Tsiodras, S., Brodovicz, K., Karchmer, A.W., Mantzoros, C.S. (2003). HypoAcrp30emia is associated with insulin resistance, hypertriglyceridemia, and fat redistribution in human immunodeficiency virus- infected patients treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 88:627–636.
Agarwal, S.K., Singh, A., Anuradha, S., Singh, N.P., Sokhi, J., & Baveja, U.K. (2001). Cytokine profile in human immunodeficiency virus positive patients with and without tuberculosis. The Journal of the Association of Physicians of India, 49:799-802.
Alcabes, P., Schoenbaum, E.E., & Klein, R.S., (1993). CD4+ lymphocyte level and the rate of decline as predictors of AIDS in intravenous drug users with HIV infection. Journalof Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes,7:513-517. Altice, F.L., Kamarulzaman, A., Soriano, V.V., Schechter, M., & Friedland, G.H. (2010). Treatment of medical, psychiatric, and substance-use comorbidities in people infected with HIV who use drugs. Lancet Journal, 376:367–387.
Alves, M.D., Brites, C., & Sprinz, E., (2014). HIV associated lypodystrophy: a review from a Brazilian perspective. Journal of Therapeutics and Clinical Risk Management, 10:559-566.
Anema, A., Chan, K., Chen, Y., Weiser, W., & Montaner, J.S. (2013). Relationship between food insecurity and mortality among HIV-positive injection drug users receiving antiretroviral therapy in British Columbia, Canada. PLoS ONE (Public Library of Science)Journal, 8:1277-1371.
Arita, Y., Kihara, S., Ouchi, N., Takahashi, M., Maeda, K., Miyagawa, J., Hotta, K., Shimomura, I., Nakamura, T., Miyaoka. K, Funahashi .T, & Matsuzawa, Y. (1999). Paradoxical decrease of an adipose-specific protein, Acrp30, in obesity. Biochemical and Biophysiology Resource Communication Journal, 257:79–83.
Arnsten, J.H., Demas, P.A., Grant, R.W., Gourevitch, M.N., Farzadegan, H., & Howard, A.A. (2002). Impact of active drug use on antiretroviral therapy adherence and viral suppression in HIV-infected drug users. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 17:377–381.
Azarang, A., Mahmoodi, M., Rajabalian, S., Shekari, M.A., Nosratabadi, J., & Rezaei, N. (2007). T-helper 1 and 2 serum cytokine assay in chronic opioid addicts. Journal ofEuropean Cytokine Network, 18:210–214.
Baldwin, G.C., & Roth, M.D. (2005). Biological links between cannabinoids and HIV infection. InInfectious Diseases and Substance AbuseJournal, pp.13-32. Springer US.
Banerjee, A., Strazza, M., Wigdahl, B., Pirrone, V., Meucci, O., & Nonnemacher, M.R. (2011). Role of mu-opioids as cofactors in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 disease progression and neuropathogenesis. Journal of Neurovirology, 17:291–302.
Bass J.B., Farer, S., Hopewell, P.C., & O’Brien, R. (1994). Treatment of tuberculosis and tuberculosis infection in adults and children. American Thoracic Society and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 149:1359–1374.
Barber D.L., Wherry, E.J., Masopust, D., Zhu, B., Allison, J.P., Sharpe, A.H., Freeman, G.J., & Ahmed, R., (2006). Restoring function in exhausted CD8 T cells during chronic viral infection. Nature Journal, 439:682-687.
Baum, M.K., Rafie, C., Lai, S., Sales, S., Page, B., & Campa, A. (2009). Crack-cocaine use accelerates HIV disease progression in a cohort of HIV- positive drug users. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 50:93– 99.
Beckerleg, S., Telfer, M., & Hundt, G. (2005). The rise of injecting drug use in East Africa: a case study from Kenya. Harm Reduction Journal, 2:12.
Benito, J.M., López, M., & Soriano, V. (2004). The role of CD8+ T-cell response in HIV infection. AIDS Reviews Journal, 6:79-88.
Benjamin, R., Banerjee, A., Sunder, S.R., Gaddam, S., Valluri, V.L., & Banerjee, S. (2013). Discordance in CD4+T-Cell levels and viral loads with co- occurrence of elevated peripheral TNF-α and IL-4 in newly diagnosed HIV-TB co-infected cases. PLoS ONE (Public Library of Science)Journal, 8:8.
Bermudez, L.E., & Goodman, J. (1996). Mycobacterium tuberculosis invades and replicates within type II alveolar cells. Infection and Immunity Journal, 64: 1400–1406.
Beyrer, C. (2007). HIV epidemiology update and transmission factors: risks and risk contexts- 16th international AIDS conference epidemiology plenary. Journal ofClinical and Infectious Diseases, 44:981-987.
Blumberg, H.M., Burman, W.J., Chaisson, R.E., Daley, C.L., Etkind, S.C., & Friedman, L.N. (2003). American Thoracic Society Documents. American Thoracic Society/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/Infectious Diseases Society of America: Treatment of tuberculosis. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 167:603-662.
Bonner, K., Mezochow, A., Roberts, T., Ford, N., & Cohn, J. (2013). Viral load monitoring as a tool to reinforce adherence: a systematic review. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 64:74-78.
Bourgarit, A., Carcelain, G., Samri, A., Parizot, C., Lafaurie, M., Abgrall, S., & Autran, B. (2009). Tuberculosis-associated immune restoration syndrome in HIV-1-infected patients involves tuberculin-specific CD4 Th-1 cells and KIR- negative γδ T cells. The Journal of Immunology, 183:3915-3923.
Breen, E.C. (2002). Pro and anti-inflammatory cytokines in human immunodeficiency virus infection and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Pharmacology and Therapeutics Journal, 95:295-304.
Brenchley, J., Schacker, T., Ruff, E., Price, D., & Taylor, J. (2004). CD4+ T cell depletion during all stages of HIV disease occurs predominantly in the gastrointestinal tract. Journal of Experimental Medicine, 200:749-759.
Brockman, M.A., Kwon, D.S., Tighe, D.P., Pavlik, D.F., Rosato, P.C., Sela, J., & Kaufmann, D. E. (2009). IL-10 is up-regulated in multiple cell types during viremic HIV infection and reversibly inhibits virus-specific T cells. Blood Journal, 114:346-356.
Brodish, P., Singh, K., Mbai, F., Kingola, N., Rinyuri, A., Njeru, C., Mureithi, P., Sambisa, W., & Weir, S. (2011). A venue-based approach to reaching MSM, IDUs and the general population with VCT: A three study site in Kenya. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome and Behaviour Journal, 16:818- 828.
Burman, W.J., & Jones, B.E. (2001). Treatment of HIV-related tuberculosis in the era of effective antiretroviral therapy. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 164:7-12.
Carr, A. (2003). HIV lipodystrophy: risk factors, pathogenesis, diagnosis and management. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 17:141-148. Carr, A., Samaras, K., Burton, S., Law, M., Freund, J., Chisholm, D.J., & Cooper, D.A. (1998). A syndrome of peripheral lipodystrophy, hyperlipidaemia and insulin resistance in patients receiving HIV protease inhibitors. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 12:51-58.
Carr, D.J., & France, C.P. (1993). Immune alterations in morphine-treated rhesus monkeys. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 267: 9-15.
CDC (2006). Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents and pregnant women in health-care settings. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 55:1-14.
CDC (1998). Prevention and treatment of tuberculosis among patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus: principles of therapy and revised recommendations. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 47:1–51.
Centlivre, M., Sala, M., Wain-Hobson, S., & Berkhout, B. (2007). In HIV-1 pathogenesis the die is cast during primary infection. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 21:1-11.
Chakerian A.A., Perera, T.V., Dascher, C.C., & Behar, S.M. (2002). Dissemination of mycobacterium tuberculosis is influenced by host factors and precedes the initiation of T-cell immunity. Infection and Immunity Journal, 70: 4501-4509.
Chang, S.W., Pan, W.S., Lozano, Beltran, D.L., Baldelomar, L.O., Solano, M.A., Tuero, I., Friedland, J.S., Torrico, F., & Gilman, R.H. (2013). Gut
hormones, appetite suppression and cachexia in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis. PLoS ONE (Public Library of Science) Journal, 8:1.
Chan, J., & Flynn J. (2004). The immunological aspects of latency in tuberculosis. Journal of Clinical Immunology, 110: 2-12.
Chen, J., Tan, B., Karteris, E., Zervou, S., Digby, J., Hillhouse, E.W., & Randeva, H.S. (2006). Secretion of Acrp30 by human placenta: differential modulation of Acrp30 and its receptors by cytokines. Diabetologia Impact Factor Journal, 49:1292-1302.
Cheng, X., Folco, E.J., Shimizu, K., & Libby, P. (2012). Adiponectin induces pro-inflammatory programs in human macrophages and CD4+ T cells. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 287:36896-36904.
Chetty, S., Porichis, F., Govender, P., Zupkosky, J., Ghebremichael, M., Pillay, M., & Kasprowicz, V.O. (2014). Tuberculosis distorts the inhibitory impact of IL-10 in HIV infection. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 28:2671-2676.
Chun, T.W., Nickle, D.C., Justement, J.S., Meyers, J.H., Roby, G., Hallahan, C.W., Kottilil, S., Moir, S., Mican, J.M., Mullins, J.I., Ward, D.J., Kovacs, J.A., Mannon, P.J., & Fauci, A.S. (2008). Persistence of HIV in gut-associated lymphoid tissue despite long-term antiretroviral therapy. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 197:714-720.
Clerici, M., & Shearer, G.M. (1994). The Th-1 and Th-2 hypothesis of HIV infection: new insights. Immunology Today Journal, 15:575-581.
Clerici, M., Wynn, T.A., Berzofsky, J.A., Blatt, S.P., Hendrix, C.W., Sher, A., & Shearer, G.M. (1994). Role of IL-10 in T helper cell dysfunction in asymptomatic individuals infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 93:768.
Clerici, M., Hakim, F.T., Venzon, D.J., Blatt, S., Hendrix, C.W., Wynn, T.A., & Shearer, G.M. (1993). Changes in interleukin-2 and interleukin-4 production in asymptomatic, human immunodeficiency virus-seropositive individuals. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 91:759-765.
Cobelens, F.G., Egwaga, S.M., Van, Ginkel T., Muwinge, H., Matee, M.I., & Borgdorff, M.W. (2006). Tuberculin skin testing in patients with HIV infection: limited benefit of reduced cut-off values. Clinical Infectious Diseases Journal, 43: 634.
Cohn, S.E., Jiang, H., McCutchan, J.A., Koletar, S.L., Murph, R.L., Robertson, K.R., Destmaurice, A., & Williams, P.L. (2011). Association of ongoing drug and alcohol use with non-adherence to antiretroviral therapy and higher risk of AIDS and death. Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 23:775-785.
Cole, S.T., Brosch, R., Parkhill, J., Garnier, T., Churcher, C., Harris, D., Gordon, S.V., Eiglmeier, K., & Gas, S. (1998). Deciphering the biology of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from the complete genome sequence. Nature Journal, 393:537–544.
Cook, J.A., Burke-Miller, J.K., Cohen, M.H., Cook, R.L., Vlahov, D., & Wilson, T.E. (2008). Crack cocaine, disease progression, and mortality in a multicenter cohort of HIV-1 positive women. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 22:1355–1363.
Corbett, E.L., Watt, C.J., & Walker, N. (2003). The growing burden of tuberculosis: global trends and interactions with the HIV epidemic. Archives of Internal Medicine Journal, 163:1009-1021.
Couper, K.N, Blount, D.G, & Riley, E.M. (2008). IL-10: the master regulator of immunity to infection. Journal of Immunology, 180:5771–5777.
Cowley, S.C., & Elkins, K.L. (2003). CD4 T cells mediate IFN-γ independent control of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection both invitro and invivo. Journal of Immunology, 171:4689-4699.
Crampin, A.C. (2010). Recurrent TB: relapse or reinfection? The effect of HIV in a general population cohort in Malawi. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 24:417–426.
Dallal, G.E. (2012). The Little Handbook of Statistical Practice, Boston, USA, Kindle Publishing.
Dannenberg, A.M., & Bloom, B.R. (1994). Tuberculosis pathogenesis protection and control. American Society for Microbiology, 38:459-483.
Dehne, K.L., Pokrovskiy, V., Kobyscha, Y., & Schwartlander, B. (2000). Update on the epidemics of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections in the newly independent states of the former Soviet Union. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 14:575-584.
Deiss, R.G., Rodwell, T.C., & Garfein, R.S. (2009). Tuberculosis and illicit drug use: review and update. Journal ofClinical Infectious Diseases, 48:72-82. Deloumeaux, J., Maachi, M., Sow-Goerger, M. T., Lamaury, I., Velayoudom, F. L., Cheret, A., & Capeau, J. (2011). Adiponectin and leptin in Afro- Caribbean men and women with HIV infection: association with insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. Journal ofDiabetes & Metabolism, 37:98-104.
De Luis, D.A., Bachiller, P., Palacios, T., Conde, R., Izaola, O., de La Fuente, B., & Eiros, Bouza, J.M. (2012). Relationship of fat distribution with adipokines in patients with acquired immune deficiency virus infection. Journal of Clinical Laboratory Analysis, 26:336-341.
De, Onis, M. (2006). WHO child growth standards: length/height-for-age, weight-for-age, weight-for-length, weight-for-height and body mass index-for- age. WHO.
De Silva, T.I., Cotton, M., & Rowland-Jones, S.L. (2008). HIV-2: the forgotten AIDS virus. Trends in Microbiology Journal, 16:588-595.
De Waal, R., Cohen, K., & Maartens, G. (2013). Systematic review of antiretroviral-associated lipodystrophy: Lipoatrophy, but not central fat gain, is an antiretroviral adverse drug reaction. PLoS ONE (Public Library of Science) Journal, 8:5.
Dhillon, N.K., Williams, R., Peng, F., Tsai, Y.J., Dhillon, S., & Nicolay, B. (2007). Cocaine-mediated enhancement of virus replication in macrophages: implications for human immunodeficiency virus-associated dementia. Journal of Neurovirological Research, 13:483–495.
Diedrich, C.R., & Flynn, J.L. (2011). HIV-1/Mycobacterium tuberculosis coinfection immunology: how does HIV-1 exacerbate tuberculosis? Infection and Immunity Journal, 79:1407–1417.
Diez, J.J., & Iglesias, P. (2003). The role of the novel adipocyte-derived hormone Acrp30 in human disease. European Journal of Endocrinology, 148: 293–300.
Doenhoff, M.J. (1998). Granulomatous inflammation and the transmission of infection: schistosomiasis - and TB too? Immunology Today Journal, 19:463-467.
Dolei, A., Serra, C., Arca, M.V., Tilocca, F., Riva, E., & Antonelli, G. (1992). Acute HIV-1 infection of CD4+ human lung fibroblasts. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 6:232-234.
Donahoe, R. M., & Vlahov, D. (1998). Opiates as potential cofactors in progression of HIV-1 infections to AIDS. Journal of Neuroimmunology, 83:77- 87.
Douek, D.C., Roederer, M., & Koup, R.A. (2009). Emerging concepts in the immunopathogenesis of AIDS. Annual Review of Medicine Journal, 60:471-84. Drobniewski, F.A., Caws, M., Gibson, A., & Young, D. (2003). Modern laboratory diagnosis of tuberculosis. Lancet Infectious Diseases Journal 3:141– 147.
Dronda, F., Zamora, J., Moreno, S., Moreno, A., Casado, J.L., Muriel, A., Perez-Elias, M.J., Antela, A., Moreno, L., & Quereda, C. (2004). CD4 cell recovery during successful antiretroviral therapy in naive HIV-infected patients: the role of intravenous drug use. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 18:2210-2212.
Drummond, B.N., Kirk, D.G., Ricketts, P.E., McCormack, C.M., Hague, C.J., McDier, F.J., Mehta, H.S., Engels, A.E., Wise, A.R., & Merlo, A.C. (2010). Cross sectional analysis of respiratory symptoms in an injection drug user cohort: the impact of obstructive lung disease and HIV. Journal of Pulmonary Medicine, 10:27.
Eddleston, M., Davidson, R., Brent, A., & Wilkinson, R. (2008). Oxford Handbook of Tropical Medicine, 3rd Edition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 856 p.
Edelman, E.J., Cheng, D.M., Krupitsky, E.M., Bridden, C., Quinn, E., Walley, A.Y., & Samet, J. H. (2014). Heroin Use and HIV Disease Progression: Results from a Pilot Study of a Russian Cohort. AIDS and Behavior Journal, 1-9. Egger, M., May, M., Chene, G., Phillips, A. N., Ledergerber, B., Dabis, F., Costagliola, D. (2002). Prognosis of HIV-1-infected patients starting highly active antiretroviral therapy: a collaborative analysis of prospective studies. The LancetJournal, 360:119-129.
Ellenberger, D.L., Sullivan, P.S., Dorn, J., Schable, C., Spira, T.J., Folks, T.M., & Lal, R.B. (1999). Viral and immunological examination of human
immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected, persistently seronegative persons. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 4:1033-1042.
Elliot, A.M., Hurst, T.J., Balyeku, M.N., Quigley, M.A., Kaleebu, P., French, N., Biryahwaho, B., Whitworth, J.A., Dockrell, H.M., & Hayes, R.J. (1999). The Immune response to Mycobacterium tuberculosis in HIV- infected and uninfected adults in Uganda: application of a whole blood cytokine assay, an epidemiological study. International Journal of Tuberculous Lung Disease, 3: 239-247.
Estaquier, J., Idziorek, T., Zou, W., Emilie, D., Farber, C. M., Bourez, J. M., & Ameisen, J.C. (1995). T helper type 1/T helper type 2 cytokines and T cell death: preventive effect of interleukin 12 on activation-induced and CD95 (FAS/APO-1) mediated apoptosis of CD4+ T cells from human immunodeficiency virus-infected persons. The Journal of Experimental Medicine, 182:1759-1767.
Estrella, M.M., Kirk, G.D., Mehta, S.H., Brown, T.T., Fine, D.M., Atta, M.G., & Lucas, G.M. (2012). Vitamin D deficiency and persistent proteinuria among HIV-infected and uninfected injection drug users. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 26:295-302.
Fahey, J.L., Taylor, J.M., Detels, R., Hofmann, B., Melmed, R., Nishanian, P., & Giorgi, J.V. (1990). The prognostic value of cellular and serologic markers in infection with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. New England Journal of Medicine, 322:166-172.
Fauci, A.S., Braunwald, E., Kasper, D.L., & Hauser, S.L. (2009). Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine, 17th Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional. 2958 p.
Fauci, A.S., Pantaleo, G., Stanley, S., & Weissman, D. (1996). Immunopathogenic mechanisms of HIV infection. Annals of Internal Medicine Journal, 124:654-663.
Fakoya, A., Matear, P.M., Filley, E., Rook, G.A., Stanford, J., Gilson, R.J., Beecham, N., Weller, I.V., & Vyakarnam, A. (1997). HIV infection alters the production of both type 1 and 2 cytokines but does not induce a polarized type 1 or 2 state. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 11:1445-1452.
Ferreira, O.F., Turchi, M.D., Laranjeiras, R., & Castelo, A. (2003). Epidemiological profile of tuberculosis infection and disease among cocaine users
admitted to hospitals of the Greater São Paulo city. Jornal de Pneumologia, 29: 125-132.
Finley, M.J., Happel, C.M., Kaminsky, D.E., & Rogers, T.J. (2008). Opioid and nociceptin receptors regulate cytokine and cytokine receptor expression. Journal of Clinical andCellular Immunology, 252:146–154.
Fiorentino, D.F., Zlotnik, A., Mosmann, T.R., Howard, M., & O'Garra, A. (1991). IL-10 inhibits cytokine production by activated macrophages. Journal of Immunology, 147:3815-3822.
Fiorenza, C.G., Chou, S.H., & Mantzoros, C.S. (2011). Lipodystrophy: pathophysiology and advances in treatment. Nature Reviews Endocrinology Journal, 7:137-150.
Florence, E., Lundgren, J., Dreezen, C., Fisher, M., Kirk, O., Blaxhult, A., Panos, G., Katlama, C., Vella, S., & Phillips, A. (2003). Factors associated with a reduced CD4 lymphocyte count response to HAART despite full viral suppression in the Euro SIDA study. Journal of HIV Medicine, 4:255-262.
Forrester, J.E., Tucker, K.L., & Gorbach, S.L. (2004). Dietary intake and body mass index in HIV-positive and HIV-negative drug users of Hispanic ethnicity. Public Health Nutrition Journal, 7:863-870.
Frieden, T.R., Sterling T.R., Munsiff, S.S., Watt C.J., & Dye, C. (2003). Tuberculosis. The Lancet Journal, 36:887–899.
Friedman, L.N., Williams, M.T., Singh, T.P., & Frieden, T.R. (1996). Tuberculosis, AIDS, and death among substance abusers on welfare in New York City. New England Journal of Medicine, 334:828–833.
Friedman, H., Newton, C., & Klein, T.W. (2003). Microbial infections, immunomodulation, and drugs of abuse. Clinical Microbiology Reviews