III. RESULTADOS
3.1 Descripción de resultados cuantitativos Tabla 3
Apart from relations that exist between mangroves and fisheries, or the former and other biotic communities, it may also be possible to view non‐natural relations between coastal communities and mangroves (i.e. between humans and the mangrove ecosystem). As critical realists put it, for an internal and necessary relationship to exist, involved parts must depend upon each other for existence (Bhaskar, 1998; Sayer, 2000). Though humans are governed by social systems or laws, as opposed to mangroves which are governed by natural laws (ibid.), it is evident that the former relies on the latter in terms of food, building materials, firewood, protection from floods, income generation, and other social‐cultural functions (see table 2.1 in chapter 2). However, this kind of relation may closely match a formal relationship or be contingent rather than substantial or necessary. This is possible because coastal communities may be evacuated in the event of natural disasters or any other reasons, to terrestrial areas and still survive; unlike fisheries which may directly be affected if moved to other ecosystems. This form of relation places humans as the key determinant of inter‐connectedness between the mangrove ecosystem and activities that take place in the said ecosystem such as transplanting, harvesting, or protection. As participant 1MMNII puts it, (see section 5.2.2.1) past experiences in the study area reveal a change in humans’ manipulation of the mangrove ecosystem from unfriendly to friendly relations (i.e. from mismanagement to management or protection), where mangrove users are now aware of the ecological‐interconnectedness between them and the mangrove ecosystem to the level that may be considered formal; despite the fact that the two have varying characteristics (social versus natural).
5.2.5 Power relations among different actors and how this affects their learning
Events and experiences that are either apparent or not apparent to us are directly connected to powers and structures of objects that operate in a given context (Sayer, 2000).
This implies that such objects (natural, social, physical or whatever is empirical to us) have
may always have the potential to do the same when their powers remain inactive.
Individuals and social groups such as fishers, mangrove restorers, local elders, and institutions also possess such powers whether as activated (causing them to act positively or negatively), or inactivated (having the possibility to act when enabling conditions emerge).
The power that individuals may potentially possess is centred on capacities or decisions that that particular person may engage in. This kind of power is sometimes referred to as ‘power one’ (Hartwig, 2007; Sayer, 2000 – see section 3 & table 3.1). The second type of power (power two) operates at hierarchical level such as institutional or Government structures (Foucault 1983; Sayer, 2000‐ see also section 3). “Powers can be possessed, exercised, or actualised” (Scott, 2010, p. 5). Possessed powers are potential powers that different objects have, whether they are ‘triggered’ by different factors or not (ibid.). ‘Exercised powers’ are powers that have been ‘triggered’ by circumstances and their effects may be observable in the mangrove ecosystem. When powers generate different effects in the mangrove ecosystem, it indicates that such powers have been ‘actualised’ and other powers have not acted against them (suppressed or counteracted them). Scott (2010) notes that powers may
‘act against’ each other and sometimes a combination of different powers may give rise to observable phenomena in the open system (ibid; Sayer, 2000) as discussed also in section 3.
The following account gives a clear picture of the two types of powers and how these may generate effects in the mangroves ecosystem:
Patrols were introduced in the coastal area because people ignored government rules and orders. This was not the case in the past. Without any enforcement in place, some people would have continued to clear mangroves (26EMII).
The above description represents ‘individuals’ as having powers to resist or ignore existing rules or orders that come from ‘power two’ (Government). The effect of ‘power one’
appears to be observable or manifest in the mangrove ecosystem, as people exercise possessed power to clear mangrove species which are protected by the law. In response to the effects of individual power, the government through local government structures introduces patrols to protect mangroves from adverse effects. The latter seems to be effective to the level that limits the capacity of individuals to exercise their previous behaviours against mangrove species. Responding to this kind of situation, Scott (2010, p. 5)
argues that one form of exercised power may not give rise to observable effects or phenomena as other power (s) may “be acting against” it. This is also clear in the account represented by participant 19MMII below:
Mangrove clearance is now somehow controlled following a Government decision to initiate village environmental committees and also as the result of an increased level of awareness among coastal dwellers.
The represented description in the above context brings into view not only the invisibility of
‘power one’ as a result of ‘power two’ acting against it, but also the rise of another dimension of ‘power one’ which is reflected in Sayer’s (2000, p. 12) point, that when individual powers are activated and enabling conditions created, the “ignorant” may become “knowledgeable”. Increased level of awareness (resulting from interactions with peers, parents, and friends ‐ see section 5.2.2.1) emerges as a dimension that operates in a friendly manner with ‘power two’ to generate positive effects in the mangrove ecosystem.
It is also important to note that causal powers are mediated through social agency, whereby coastal communities evaluate and re‐evaluate their situation or personal concerns about various decisions that they are involved in, “by reflexively defining their doings” (Archer, 2010, p. 8). This seems to be the case when participant 1MMNII describes a shift from destructive mangrove practices to transplanting and restoration initiatives. In this example, reflexivity appears as a main mechanism or causal power that shapes the subjects’
decisions to embark on new practices and praxis, and in turn such decisions also shape the subjects simultaneously (ibid.).
Archer’s understanding of the subjects’ ability to shape and re‐shape the social order while simultaneously being shaped by the same, suggests that individuals and social groups are likely to learn from the practices or praxis that they are involved in. This may cause them to transform their way of doing things or advance their understanding to the level that can be perceived by coastal communities as being different from the former. Arguing in support of Archer’s assertion, Mingers (2006) states that agents themselves are the result of the social activity that they govern, and through activities they reproduce themselves and transform.
Reflexivity depends upon a subject who has sufficient personal identity to know what he or she cares about and to design the ‘projects’ that they hope (fallibly) will realise their concerns within society. Equally, it depends upon the objectivity of their social circumstances, which under their own (fallible) descriptions, will encourage them to follow one course of action rather than another (p. 6)
From Archer’s description, it is possible to argue that mangrove restorers like any other subjects who have personal identities, follow several courses of actions such as restoration practices for reasons that they consider to be addressing the ‘objectivity of their social circumstances’. Participants 1EKII and 11FMII (see section 5.2.1) for example, represent mangroves as famous nursery grounds, a source of food, and shelter for a variety of living things. Participant 1MMNII (see section 5.2.1) describes them as playing an ecological role (protecting the coast), and used for economic purposes such as boat making, and participant 8 BKEII calls them ‘a common market’ place (see section 5.2.7) where a variety of ecological biodiversity meet. Berjack et al. (2011) confirms the social‐cultural, ecological, and economic roles of mangrove resources. These therefore serve as the ‘objectivity’ that drives individual and group decisions to reflexively embark on coastal management initiatives.
The identified ‘objectivity’ therefore serves as common goal and a collective experience which encourages knowledge sharing, shared understanding, trust, and leads to new knowledge (Lebel, Grothmann & Siebenhuner,2010). This kind of environment attracts social learning, which according to Collins et al., 2007) promotes concerted action, leading to a common end. This affirms the common critical realist view that individuals or social groups “in virtue of their physical make up, socialization, and education…” have power (capacities) “… to behave in particular ways” (Sayer, 2000, p. 11). When such powers are activated, they engage themselves in various activities (ibid.).
Exercising such power depends on other conditions such as “…tools, resources, and the context itself” (Sayer, 2000, p. 14). This is what the following participant is communicating below:
Initially, we did not have any form of organised group work as it is the case now;
people would operate individually and this was the time when a lot of mangroves were being cleared. But after sometime Tanga coastal zone programme invited us to
several seminars, those who participated helped the rest of us to organise ourselves as a team (1MMNII).
Enabling conditions therefore may include training (capacity building), such as seminars, workshops, and meetings that aim at equipping target participants with the necessary skills and knowledge that may help them to plan how to approach the ‘objectivity’ or a desired need. Provision of enabling conditions as specified by Sayer (2000, p. 14) depends on the context. Resources may also include traditional skills and knowledge (Berkes 2008) that coastal people have, or their moral support for initiatives that focus on agreed ‘objectivity’
The description given by participant 1MMNII is essentially representing institutional and organisational training as a form of social learning that can facilitate ‘collective action around common environmental concerns’ which is one of the typologies that Cundill &
Rodela bring into view (2012, p. 20, see sections 1.7.5 and 2.2). This typology considers processes that allow people to interact, share perspectives and experiences, plan or strategize for purposes of achieving a collective desired goal as a form of social learning.
From this, it may be argued that the occurrence of capacity building as a form of social learning depends on enabling conditions that are available in a particular context. It may, for example, depend on the economic profile of local communities, and the presence of mangroves and fisheries in the area. It may also depend on the willingness of coastal communities to participate in such programmes.
Individuals in the coastal environment have the potential to become mangrove restorers or fishers. When these engage themselves in the practice (e.g. mangrove restoration), and we observe positive results in their practice or praxis, we may assume that their powers have been actualised and are not suppressed or counteracted by other powers. If, for instance, the initiatives they have introduced operate for a while and come to an end, it may be assumed that their powers might have been suppressed by either higher powers or powers that operate at the same level.
Different powers may therefore be activated, actualised or exercised as a result of enabling conditions, but this does not guarantee that activated powers may not be suppressed by other powers. Sayer (2000, p. 12) affirms that when powers are activated, and enabling
conditions met, “we could become many things which we are currently not: ….. the ignorant could become knowledgeable”. From this, it is possible to identify another typology of social learning (currently absent in the Cundill & Rodela (2012) typology) which is ‘learning as becoming’ (Wals, 2007; Schudel 2013). As argued by Minger (2006), agents themselves are the result of the social activity that they govern, and through activities they reproduce themselves and transform. While this study did not work with Bhaskar’s dialectical critical realism, his 1993 work on dialectical critical realism, while not stated in these exact words, shows that reflexive social learning involves an ongoing process of becoming (Hartwig 2007;
Lotz‐Sisitka 2012; Schudel 2013).
There is a recurring depiction of learning as knowledge sharing (being a key aspect of learning as becoming’) in this context, especially when participant 1MMNII indicates that those who participated in the training shared their knowledge with those who did not take part in the same. Another feature of ‘learning as becoming’ as noticed in this case study is participants being able to visualise alternative practices, and being willing to work together and learn from each other as depicted in the statement of participant 20MMII which says
“… those who participated helped the rest of us to organise ourselves as a team” and “Then we transplanted seedlings in affected areas and urged other people such as friends and relatives to join us”.
It is also worthy to note that powers may be passive and susceptible to change (Sayer, 2000). Sometimes powers exercised by individuals or social groups may not give rise to any observable phenomenon as other powers may “act against them” (Scott, 2010, p. 98). The account given by a retired fisher below, suggests a change that results from a new higher form of power operating in the coastal area:
Our fore-fathers used traditional fishing gears which were generally much friendlier than the ones we see now. These would allow reproduction of fish and some species could grow up to the level that only three people could manage to carry and put them into the fishing vessel. When we grew up, that’s the kind of fishing gears we got introduced to. Currently, the fishing industry is focusing on quick gains and it appears superior over traditional fishing. (9FMNII).
More insights can be drawn from the above representation. The first thing to note is the emergence of new structures that have causal powers to promote modern fishing at the expense of common traditional fishing practices. Some higher powers appear to limit traditional fishers from exercising their long‐term fishing experiences, and local fishers feel that they can’t compete with modern fishing methods. There is also a seeming threat to the long‐term ‘shared knowledge’ which is regarded by local or traditional fishers as being
‘friendly’ and sustainable.