Descripción detallada de los casos de uso:

Introduction

The previous chapter presented the basic theoretical and methodological foundation for the dissertation. Primarily, it examined the multi-level, fluid nature of identity and explained how to interpret the interplay between the process of identity formation and the social context where identity narratives develop.

The present chapter is structured into two parts. The first part offers an outline of targeted religious organizations: Risshō kōseikai, Shinnyoen and the Roman Catholic Church in Japan.

This work acknowledges that religious identity may facilitate believers’ philanthropic behaviour, as suggested by the qualitative works in the sociology of religion discussed in Chapter 1.

However, in this dissertation the analysis of this component is limited to the individual-level behaviours that pertain to social engagement. Explicitly, women’s attitudes toward faith and expectations toward spiritual rewards are not the core arguments of this study. For this reason, each targeted religious organizations is illustrated only in terms of those key doctrinal aspects, concepts and religious practices that are relevant to explain women’s attitudinal and behavioural expectations in relationship with their volunteer work. Hence, the following sections should be regarded as concise presentations in the perspective of the specific topic of the present investigation and not exhaustive discussion in terms of the historical and doctrinal issues of each religious organization.

The second part of the chapter outlines the targeted volunteer groups. This study draws upon a survey of five groups, two sponsored by Risshō kōseikai, two Shinnyoen groups and one sponsored by the Roman Catholic Church in Japan. The presentation provides information about the location, the structure, membership, the range of social activities and the detail of those surveyed in the present study.

1. Outline of targeted religious organizations

The table below summarizes the characteristics of the three religious organizations as case-studies.

Table 3: Targeted religious organizations

Risshō kōseikai, the ‘society for the establishment of righteousness’, was founded in 1938 on the initiative of Niwano Nikkyō (1906-1999) and co-founder Naganuma Myōkō (1889-1957) after breaking off from Reiyūkai kyōdan.⁸³ Naganuma Myōkō had a distinctive role in the early period of the movement because of her shamanic powers.⁸⁴ The religious group has grown steadily since its foundation, initially because of the appealing power of Naganuma’s shamanic practices on the middle and lower strata of society (Guthrie 1988: 21).

However, after the death of Naganuma Myōkō in 1957 the number of adherents decreased, also as a consequence of strong media criticism of the groups’ proselytization activities.⁸⁵ As a consequence, through the leading role of Niwano Nikkyō, the group shifted towards an emphasis on doctrine and teachings [hō]: the shamanistic practices were gradually eliminated and the Lotus sūtra (Hokekyō in Japanese) was declared as the sole basis of the movement’s religious activities (Mukhopadhyaya 2005: 192-5). Stone (2003) suggests that this shift in orientation coincided with the increasing involvement of the organization in ecumenical activities for peace (2003: 69). It was against the backdrop of these changes that Risshō kōseikai became actively engaged in social activities both at the national and international levels (Mukhopadhyaya 2005: 195) developing a network of members sharing daily religious tasks and cooperation activities at the grassroots level (ibid.).

The current leader of the organization, Niwano Nichiko (1938 - ), who succeeded his father

in 1991,⁸⁶ follows his father’s determination on disseminating the Lotus sūtra teachings and promoting interreligious dialogue and cooperation in order to promote world peace. Risshō kōseikai is involved in international religious cooperation with the Roman Catholic Church, as well as other denominations and religions (Mukhopadhyaya 2005: 196-7). The relationship between the Roman Catholic Church and Risshō kōseikai has been further consolidated through Niwano Nichiko’s daughter, Niwano Kōshō, who has already been designated as successor in the leadership of the organization.⁸⁷ She has spent several years in Italy and established a close relationship with several Christian religious movements, especially with the Catholic Focolare group, with the purpose of creating initiatives to promote interfaith dialogue and collaboration.⁸⁸

Doctrine

Risshō kōseikai’s doctrine puts great emphasis on following the Bodhisattva’s way, a concept of Mahayana Buddhism that founder Niwano Nikkyō saw embedded in the Lotus sūtra.⁸⁹ Therefore, it is a new religion of the Lotus sūtra tradition, although it combines the One-Vehicle [ichijō] teachings of the Lotus sūtra, and konpon bukkyō, that is Fundamental Buddhism.⁹⁰ According to Mukhopadhyaya, the idea that all teachings are the manifestation of one universal truth indicates the universalistic aspect of the One-Vehicle teachings of the Lotus sūtra (2005: 250). The combination of the original teachings of Buddhism as taught by konpon bukkyō and the idea of doctrinal unity as emphasized by the concept of the One-Vehicle teachings of the Lotus sūtra provide Risshō kōseikai with a ‘universal ethic’

(Mukhopadhyaya 2005: 253). The centrality of those guiding principles is the basis of Risshō kōseikai’s social engagement and contribution to social welfare and civic society.⁹¹

Social ethic

In her analysis of Risshō kōseikai’s social engagement, Mukhopadhyaya explains that members’ practice of the Bodhisattva’s way [bosatsugyō] (2005: 251-3) stems from the study of the Lotus sūtra and the founders’ teachings, which entails the establishment of righteousness that gradually becomes a social practice (2005: 255).⁹² She suggests that the process can be understood as a continuum from religious-related activities (such as hōza meetings,⁹³ michibiki [proselytism] and religious practices), to social activities including family education, community volunteer activities, peace activities and others. As mentioned in Chapter 2 (see note 74), Mukhopadhyaya finds in her work that the majority of the participants in hōza meetings are women (2005: 270 and 444). She also sees a close relationship

between the participation in hōza meetings and participants’ engagement in social activities (ibid.). As discussed above, the Risshō kōseikai doctrine emphasizes the practice of social ethics, so it is expected that women participants may feel motivated in initiating social activities to address problems in the local community that they have discussed in the hōza meetings.

Stone (2003) similarly indicates the hermeneutical perspective of the Lotus sūtra as embodying the ideology of peace given by Niwano Nikkyō as the foundation of Risshō kōseikai social engagement (Stone 2003: 69).

In view of the above, the role of Risshō kōseikai doctrine, which informs members with expectations toward the practice of social ethics in their everyday life, cannot be underestimated. The number of women members rendering day-to-day volunteer services and coordinating activities in order to strengthen community solidarity and improve the quality of life, as observed during the fieldwork conducted for the present study, is consistent with such doctrinal grounding. One of the goals of this study is to assess the consistency of this argument.

Activities contributing to society

Over the years Risshō kōseikai has carried out a variety of activities contributing to social life at local, national and international levels.⁹⁴ Further, the movement has been engaged in interreligious dialogue and cooperation for peace, collaborating with several international organizations and a variety of NGOs in order to pursue the goal of peace (Kisala 1992: 93-108).⁹⁵

At the local level, Risshō kōseikai churches are also involved in grassroots cooperation activities throughout the year, organizing events, fund raising and promoting the Isshoku o ageru undō [Donate a Meal Campaign].⁹⁶ In the late 1960s, Risshō kōseikai initiated the Brighter Society Movement, meisha undō, a Risshō kōseikai-sponsored non-profit organization active on the domestic level, through which Risshō kōseikai churches cooperate with local governments, welfare organizations and volunteer groups.⁹⁷

Facilities⁹⁸

Risshō kōseikai headquarters are located in Suginami Ward, northern Tokyo. The organization runs various facilities dealing with education and social welfare, most of them located in the headquarters area. Educational facilities comprise three Kōsei Kindergarten, one founded in 1953 located in the headquarters area, one in central Tokyo and one in Fukui

Prefecture; the Kōsei Gakuen founded in 1953 includes a primary school, a junior high school and a high school; the Kōsei Gakuen Girls’ Junior and High School opened in 1995; the Kōsei Library was founded in 1953; the Kōsei Advanced Nursing School was founded in 1968; the Hōju Women’s Vocational College (founded in 1968) educates young women in business and English language communication; and the Kōsei Home Training Institute founded in 1971, teaches mothers how to deal with everyday childcare and education. The organization also supports several cultural activities and runs the Tokyo Kōsei Wind Orchestra established in 1960; the Kōsei Gagaku Society, a group performing ancient Japanese court music and dance; the Kōsei Chorus; and the Kōsei Koto Players Group.

Health care facilities include the Kōsei Hospital established in 1952; and the Myōkoen, a caring home for elderly people founded in 1958. Among the institutions and facilities affiliated to Risshō kōseikai are: the Kōsei Publishing Company founded in 1966; the Chūo Academic Research Institute founded in 1969; the Kōsei Counselling Institute established in 1975; the Niwano Peace Foundation founded in 1978; and the Kōsei Cultural Association of 1984. It also runs a comprehensive cultural centre, the Fumon Kaikan (Hall of the Open Door), located just opposite the Daiseidō, Great Sacred Hall, which is the main centre of Risshō kōseikai’s religious activities.⁹⁹ The organization also maintains a cemetery founded in 1951 where members and their relatives may ask to be buried.

Structure¹⁰⁰

The organization divides Japan into 26 districts comprising a total of 239 churches [kyōkai].¹⁰¹ There are 56 churches abroad.

A church comprises several shibu or sub-branches, which are then divided into area-groups, chiku-hōza, units containing, depending on the area, a few or as many as several hundred households. Under the chiku-hōza are the kumi, groups of households, which are divided into the smallest organizational unit, the han, a section including family members of a few households. While Risshō kōseikai would not provide any statistics regarding the gender distribution of their religious leaders or adherents as a whole, according to the information collected from staff during the survey, the majority of shibu and chiku leaders are women aged forty and older.

Each church is headed by the kyōkaichō, a salaried member of Risshō kōseikai, who manages the church activities and supervises its administration. The church paid staff is organized into sōmubu [general affairs department]; kyōmubu [educational affairs department]; shōgaibu [public relations department]; and bunsho fukyōbu [cultural and

missionary work department] supervising the periodicals Hōrin [Wheel of Dharma] and Daiamondo [Diamond].

Members’ organizational structure and social engagement¹⁰²

Members of Risshō kōseikai are tied to each other through the face-to-face relationship of michibiki-oya (“guiding parent”, the spiritual guide) that establishes a close, family-like tie between an experienced member and a junior adherent. The religious parent-child relationships are formed regardless of the place where the conversion takes place and irrespective of the location of the convert's residence. The guidance work aims at spiritual development as well as advising, helping and giving practical or emotional support to the newer adherent. The relationships will continue for many years and the “children” will be taught how to recruit new members as their own “children”.

Adherents are grouped according to their age and sex. Women members are also organised according their marital status. Members aged 39 and below belong to the Youth Division [seinenbu]. It comprises the shōnenbu, the children’s section for boys and girls from birth to elementary school; and the gakuseibu, which gathers students from junior high school to university. Other young members who are not students, usually working people, are grouped by sex: men in the danshibu, men’s section, and women in the joshibu, women’s section.

Married women aged 40 or older are grouped in the fujinbu, the Women’s Division, which comprises also the seinen fujinbu, the Young Women’s Division, for married women aged 39 and below. Single women aged 39 and older are categorized as ippan kaiin, ordinary member, while men members aged 40 and older are placed into the sōnen-bu, the Senior Division.

Members can engage in social activities promoted by their larger division and sections directed by Risshō kōseikai headquarters as members of the sponsoring volunteer groups, or contribute to their sub-brunch [shibu] and kyōkai [church] as ordinary members. International activities, for peace, disaster relief and other forms of assistance are organized by the head of the organization (Kisala 1992: 104-5). Activities promoted by the Brighter Society Movement are usually instructed by the head of the organization and then managed by the Public Relation Section of the local church. Social welfare activities and educational activities may also be organized on a larger scale in cooperation with other churches under the supervision of a sub-branch or just work locally based on the church. Grassroots level activities are arranged by shibu and chiku leaders [chiku-shunin]. To name some of those observed during the fieldwork: elderly care activities, such as home visits and assistance, activities for

environmental protection and education, fund raising, and childcare activities were organized and managed by members of the local church.

In terms of the ratio between the male and female memberships, it is not simple to specify the percentage of women in Risshō kōseikai since membership is calculated in terms of households. However, the male-female ratio among teachers as reported in the Religions Yearbook may relate to the male-female ratio among the whole membership, thereby suggesting a very high percentage of women adherents in the church.¹⁰³

For the purpose of this study, the high number of women in the organization, especially at grassroots level volunteer groups, the regular social contribution to community welfare activities, and the international engagement with other religions and specifically the close association with Catholic organizations, were regarded as significant when comparing Risshō kōseikai with Shinnyoen and the Roman Catholic Church. Moreover, the announced transition to a woman at the head of Risshō kōseikai was also considered noteworthy for the present study in terms of the expected effects on adherents’ view of women as well as on gendered practices.

1.2 Shinnyoen¹⁰⁴

Shinnyoen (meaning “borderless garden of truth”) is a Buddhist organization founded in 1936. Originally affiliated with the Shingon tantric school based in the Daigo monastery (Kyoto), it became an independent religious organization open to lay practitioners in 1943.

The founders Itō Shinjō (1906-1989), who trained at Daigo monastery, and his wife, Itō Tomoji (Uchida Tomoji, 1912-1967), based their doctrine on the teachings of the Great Nirvana Sutra (Mahaparinirvāna sūtra, or Nirvāna sūtra in short; daihatsu nehankyō in Japanese).

Similarly to the case of Naganuma Myōkō in Risshō kōseikai, Shinnyoen also started with a female co-founder endowed with extraordinary spiritual powers. Itō Tomoji is actually regarded as the spiritual founder [reiso] of the movement. Her powers were regarded as quite strong and she was attributed with helping many people suffering from possession through her capacity to communicate with spirits. At the same time, her husband was able to interpret the meaning of her spiritual revelations through Buddhist prayers (Inoue et al. 1994: 117). This activity became the foundation of the sesshin (Usui 2003: 225), a form of meditation that consists of the interaction between the practitioner and the spirit world through the guidance of trained mediums called reinōsha.¹⁰⁵ Since then, reinōsha have given guidance through their reinō [spiritual power] on a wide range of issues, from questions about the doctrine, to advice

on individual problems and interpersonal relationships.¹⁰⁶

The current leader at the head of Shinnyoen is Itō Shinjō’s third daughter, Itō Shinsō (1942 ).¹⁰⁷ She holds the rank of daisōjo [archbishop], the highest rank in the Japanese Buddhist clerical hierarchy. She is the first woman in the one thousand-year history of the Daigo Shingon esoteric school to have received the rank of daisōjo.

Doctrine

The core principle of Shinnyoen doctrine is the Nirvāna sūtra’s message that everyone, including lay people, can reach enlightenment.¹⁰⁸ Shinnyoen’s doctrine aims at three spiritual goals:

1. realizing happiness for all mankind;

2. pursuing true world peace through refining the Buddha-nature innate in all human beings;

3. attaining the realm of nirvāna and liberation, and experiencing a joyful world by realizing permanence, bliss, selfhood and purity [jōrakugajō]¹⁰⁹ within this world, as it is said to be taught in the Great Nirvana Sutra (Shiramizu 1978: 215).¹¹⁰

These spiritual goals underline Shinnyoen’s belief that ‘one’s concern should be not only with saving oneself but also with helping the others’ (Nagai 1995: 305). Therefore, the Shinnyoen doctrine emphasizes that individual spiritual transformation entails contributing to others so that everyone can find the way to realize the four ideals of jōrakugajō preached in the Nirvāna sūtra, and attain the Buddha-nature.

Another key element in Shinnyoen doctrine is the belief in the spiritual world [reikai] where the deceased members of the Itō family (namely, founders Itō Shinjō and his wife Itō Tomoji, and the two prematurely deceased sons) dwell together with guardian gods who protect Buddhism (Inoue et al. 1994: 117). In particular, it is the two prematurely deceased sons that are said to take on themselves the sufferings and misfortune of members through the intermediation of mediums [reinōsha]. In this view, the spiritual training of sesshin (translated by Shinnyoen as ‘to touch the essence’),¹¹¹ where members receive guidance and advice for personal problems, is essential to pursue the aims preached in the Nirvāna sūtra.

Shinnyoen practice and social action

According to Shinnyoen’s doctrine, one’s transformation is not only a matter of spiritual training, but entails a large degree of social engagement. The social connotation of one’s spiritual transformation is well represented by the religious activities that members are

expected to perform along with the sesshin practice. In order to realize one’s Buddha-nature, followers must undertake three forms of actions called mitsu no ayumi [three ways]: kangi [joyful giving] consisting of financial contribution to the organization; otasuke [proselytism];

and gohōshi [volunteer service] (Inoue et al. 1994: 342). While the Nirvāna sūtra gives the doctrinal ground to the followers’ social ethics, mitsu no ayumi matter for the actual practice of it. Therefore, the social ethics of Shinnyoen stems from the doctrinal goal of helping the others to attain their Buddhahood along with practical activities of recruiting, giving and helping that are the pillars of the individual’s spiritual training.

In addition to the Nirvāna sūtra, co-founder Itō Tomoji compiled the “Seventeen regulations for Women” [josei no tame no jūnana jun] teaching that a woman should be feminine, gentle, strong, unselfish, non-assertive and concerned for others.¹¹² In September 1998, during a general meeting with the Youth Division at Shinnyoen headquarters in Tachikawa, current leader Itō Shinsō discussed the value of her mother’s “Seventeen regulations for Women” as a universal guide for self-cultivation that provides guidelines for male and female alike.¹¹³ Organizational structure

Shinnyoen promotes family members to leadership position, which explains the succession of Itō Shinjō’s third daughter to the head of the organization. However, the current leader has no children, which raises a question of who will be the successor.

The present leader, Itō Shinsō, a married woman holding the rank of daisōjo [archbishop], is unarguably an example of peculiarly female leadership at the head of a largely male religious organizational structure.¹¹⁴ Below her in the organizational structure are bishops of various ranks, whose responsibilities include overseeing the various departments within the organization, from the General Affairs, to Doctrine Division, Public Relations, Publication Division and International Division.

Any Shinnyoen follower may achieve the rank of bishop, with no distinction according to sex.

However, average adherents usually tend to stop after reaching the level of reinōsha, which by itself requires long training and is ranked in five levels: it usually takes ten to fourteen years

However, average adherents usually tend to stop after reaching the level of reinōsha, which by itself requires long training and is ranked in five levels: it usually takes ten to fourteen years