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The characterisation of the study cases is summarised in Figure 2. Study cases consisted of two inland valley and two floodplain wetland types, which were located in contrasting sites in Kenya and in Tanzania.

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Sub-humid lowlands Wetland cluster groups (WCGs) •WCG 2 (28%; area size = 145 ha) •WCG 3 (72%; area size = 369 ha) Dominant farm types •FT 8 (48%, n= 47) •FT 2 (44%, n= 43) •FT 1 ( 6%, n= 6) Main agricultural uses •Rain-fed lowland rice and upland food (maize, cassava) crops, off-season traditional irrigated rice and okra; •Grazing and livestock watering Non-agricultural uses •Domestic water collection •Thatching material (Cyperusand Typhaspp.); •Fishing; •Clay harvesting Main uses on upland •Rain-fed food (maize, beans, and cassava) crops; •Communal grazing Livestock systems •Non-dairy cattle and small ruminants •Free grazing in communal grasslands on upland and in floodplain

Humid midlands Wetland cluster groups (WCGs) •WCG 1 (23%; area size = 24 ha) •WCG 5 (77%; area size = 91 ha) Dominant farm types •FT 4 (76%, n= 39) •FT 9 (12%, n= 6) •FT 2 (10%, n= 5) Main agricultural uses •Year-round high-value (Brassica, tomato, and potato) crop production •Temporary cut-and carry forage Non-agricultural uses •Thatching material (Typha spp.) •Settlements Main uses on upland •Rain-fed food (maize, beans) crops; •Long rains high-value (Brassica and potato) crops; •Fodder crops (Napier grass and guatemala); •Agroforestry (fruits and timber) Livestock systems •Dairy cattle (zero grazing) with cut- and carry; •Free grazing of some few non-dairy cattle and small ruminants (sheep) in the forestry

Humid highlands Wetland cluster groups (WCGs) •WCG 1 (17%; area size = 4.4 ha) •WCG 4 (83%; area size = 22 ha) Dominant farm types •FT 5 (84%, n= 32) •FT 4 ( 5%, n= 2) •FT 7 ( 5%, n= 2) Main agricultural uses •Year-round high-value (Brassica, fresh beans, and green pepper) crop production; •Year-round arrow root; •Rain-fed upland food (maize, beans, and sweet potato) crop; •Temporary cut-and carry forage; Non-agricultural uses •Domestic use water collection; •Industrial use water abstraction (coffee factories); •Harvest of mulching materials (Cyperusspp.) Main uses on upland •Perennial cash crop (coffee) •Rain-fed food (maize, beans) crops; •Irrigated high-value (Brassica and potato) crops; •Perennial fodder crops (Napier grass) •Agroforestry (fruits and timber) Livestock systems •Dairy goats and cattle (zero grazing) with cut-and carry •Grazing in private land Semi-arid highlands Wetland cluster groups (WCGs) •WCG 2 (67%; area size = 503 ha) •WCG 4 (33%; area size = 243 ha) Dominant farm types •FT 1 (33%, n= 29) •FT 7 (24%, n= 21) •FT 9 (14%, n= 12) •FT 12 (11%, n= 10) •FT 11 (10%, n= 9) Main agricultural uses •Year-round high-value (Brassica, fresh beans, and green pepper) crop production; •Year-round arrow root; •Rain-fed upland food (maize& beans) crop; •Temporary cut-and carry forage; •Irrigation water abstraction Non-agricultural uses •Domestic use water collection; •Thatching materials (Cyperusspp.) •Wild vegetables and medecinal plants collection; •Settlements; •Wildlife (buffalo, bushbock, hyppopotatmus, monkeys, elephants, etc.) Main uses on upland •Ranching; •Agribusiness farm (foreign invested large scale export-oriented irrigated cut-flower and vegetable farms); •Annual upland fod crops Livestock systems •Free grazing in communal grasslands and in wetland; •Occasional grazing in rented ranches; •Seasonal migration to mountainous areas

InlandvalleyFloodplain Figure 2: Characterisation of the human-wetland agricultural systems at the study site. The wetland systems comprised two main categories (i.e. inland valley and floodplain) of wetland types. Each wetland type is made of a collection of WCGs (i.e. 2 to 5), which further embeds different Farm Types (i.e. 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, and 12). Main uses by the farmers are distinguished between the production resources (upland vs. wetland) and further between agricultural and non-agricultural purposes for wetland uses.

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2.2.1 Karatina humid highland inland valley

Karatina valley is located in the highlands (i.e. ≥ 1200m above sea level) of Central Kenya with high agroecological potential. The area is densely populated (i.e. 327-2437 persons km^-2) with good market opportunities.

Nevertheless, human population growth of 3% annually and inter-generation inheritance of land have resulted in farm size reduction through subdivision and land fragmentation (Pender et al., 2006). Most of the land was used by smallholders, farming small pieces of land (i.e. 1.2 ha on average; Chapter 3).

Rainfall is bimodal ranging between 900 and 1500 mm year^-1, allowing two cropping seasons (the long and short rains) a year. Dominant soil types include deep reddish Nitisols on uplands and blackish to brownish Gleysols in the valley. Farms are predominantly integrated crop-livestock systems. Upland fields were cultivated with cash (i.e. Coffee, Coffea robusta), upland food (i.e.

maize, Zea mays and beans, Phaseolus vulgaris), and fodder (i.e. Napier grass, Pennisetum purpureum) crops. Greater than four-fifths of the valley (i.e.

24 ha) were drained for arrow root (Colocasia esculenta), upland food and high-value crops production.

2.2.2 Rumuruti semi-arid highland floodplain

Rumuruti floodplain is located in Laikipia West district, on the lee ward side of Mt. Kenya and Aberdares. The floodplain occurs on the highland (i.e. 1800 m above sea level on average) of a saucer-shaped plateau (Thenya, 2001), with good agroecological potential for ranching or nomadic pastoralism (Jaetzold and Schmidt, 1982). The area was sparsely populated (between 6 and 69 persons km^-2), with poor market opportunities. The population density in the area increased in 1970s as a result of in-migration (owing to the resettlement of land-scarce crop farmers from the central highlands in the district). The resettlement was accompanied by land subdivision in the 1970s and hence land use transformation from large scale ranching to small-scale farming (Thenya, 1998). Rainfall is bimodal but characterised by high variability, with on average less than 500 mm year^-1. Relatively coarse-textured Planasols are predominant in upland soil types, with more fertile Fluvisols in the floodplain.

Farms are diverse with different crop - livestock systems. Crop-non-dairy systems (39%) coexist with both crop- and livestock-based systems (34 and 22%, respectively). About two-third (475 ha) of the floodplain was used for grazing, upland food and high-value crops production by upland landless

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farming households. Greater than one-fourth of the wetland area (211 ha) was covered with natural vegetation of Cyperus papyrus species.

2.2.3 Lukozi humid midland inland valley

Lukozi valley is located in the midlands (i.e. ≥ 1300m above sea level) of western Usambara Mountain in Tanzania, with relatively good agroecological potential. Like the Karatina site, Lukozi was characterised by high population density (i.e. 131 persons km^-2) with relatively good market opportunities as compared with the lowland areas. Farmers had also integrated dairy farming with crop production, with the primary objective to maximize the returns from limited land and capital. Most of land is used by smallholders, farming relatively large pieces of land (i.e. 2. 4 ha on average). Rainfall is also bimodal.

Dominant soil types include Ferralsols and Acrisols distributed in the upland, whereas Gleysols and Luvisols are predominant soil types in the valley. Land on the upland is allocated to food crops, potato (Solanum tuberosum), and fodder crops and vegetative barriers (i.e. Napier grass, Pennisetum purpureum and Guatemala grass, Tripsacum laxum). The entire valley was drained, allowing three to four cropping seasons of high-value crops a year.

2.2.4 Malinda sub-humid lowland floodplain

Malinda floodplain is located in the lowlands of Pangani basin in Tanzania, with altitude ranging between 280 and 380 m above sea level. The population density was six times lower than that for the midlands and hence landholdings were the largest (i.e. 2.6 ha on average) of those in the study area. Rainfall is bimodal but short rains often fail, totalling 800 mm year^-1. Dominant soil types include Acrisols and Luvisols on uplands and Fluvisols and Vertisols in the floodplain. Farms are diverse and evenly distributed between crop-based and crop-livestock-based systems. On average, upland per capita is as low as those for the other sites but only 6% of the surveyed farming households were upland landless. The floodplain was mainly used for grazing and semi-market rain-fed rice production, and access to off-farm income is limited. Fifteen per cent of the wetland (i.e. 75 ha) was still unused, and under permanent floods with secondary and primary vegetation of Cyperaceae and Typhaceae families.

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