Descripción de la realidad problemática

Trustworthiness as observed by Anney (2014:275) seeks to address five main questions:

 how a researcher can create confidence in the results;

 how to arrive at applicability of the results in another context;

 whether the results would be similar if the study was repeated with similar participants in a similar environment;

 how the results are entirely drawn from participants; and

 whether the results were influenced by the researcher’s biasness, motives and desires. This means that every research must aim at providing answers to all the above questions as a way to prove trustworthiness. Elmusharaf (2013:2) describes trustworthiness as the manner in which the truthfulness or worthiness of the research findings can be judged. In other words, trustworthiness refers to the criteria that one would use to determine whether the findings of the research are true or not. These include credibility, transferability, dependability and conformability (Anney, 2014:272).

3.9.1 Credibility

Credibility can be defined as the capacity of the research to answer the research question precisely, where the findings are not merely a product of mistakes in the research design, misconceptions, or factors that may not be known (Elmusharaf, 2013:30). Additionally, Anney (2014:276) argues that credibility confirms whether or not the results of the study are derived from the original data gathered from the participants and is a realistic interpretation of the participants ’ideas. Credibility facilitates confidence in the reported findings of the study through adherence to the recommended credibility strategies such as lengthy interactions, perseverance in observations, using more than one method, using verbatim extracts, debriefing colleagues, and critiquing and checking by members (Anney, 2014:276).

In order to ensure the research is credible, the researcher spent time at the selected schools in order to build positive relationships with the participants. Barusch, George and Gringeri (2011) advance that prolonged engagement demands that the researcher spends enough time at the research sites building relationships and co-constructing meaning with the research participants.

The researcher recorded discussions and interviews although the original names and institution were withheld as a way of accumulating sources for reference.

3.9.2 Transferability

The second measure of trustworthiness in qualitative research is transferability. Transferability according to Sikolia, Biros, Mason and Weiser (2013:2) entails the extent to which the study results may be applied to a different context. Transferability, as observed by Frambach, Van der Vleutenand Durning (2013:410),can be attained by making research findings meaningful to others through clearly describing the research, the sampling strategy, and literature from different settings.

Transferability, as observed by Anney (2014:277), is facilitated through provision of thick description and purposive sampling. In achieving transferability for this study, the researcher provided a detailed account of the qualitative phenomenological design founded on Martin Heidegger’s interpretive approach. In this description, the researcher emphasised that the role of the researcher was to describe and interpret the lived experiences of the participants with regard to learner performance in public secondary schools in Zambia. The researcher indicated that the study is undertaken on the Copperbelt Province. The researcher also purposively selected participants who had the potential to inform the study because of their experiences in their different capacities.

The researcher also provided a description of the actual instruments that were used in data collection: semi-structured, focus-group interviews and data analysis of school motto, mission statements, school policies relating to and students’ assessment record sheets

3.9.3 Dependability

According to Cohen et al. (2011:140), dependability relies on participants thoroughly evaluating the research results, interpretations and recommendations to ensure that they are adequately backed up by the information derived from the research participants. It entails critically examining what comes out of the research, the way the data are interpreted and finally the recommendations that emerge from the research. This involves, as observed by Anney (2014:278), critically revisiting the collected data in its raw form, engagement of more than one person in data analysis and comparison of results; coding the data twice for the sake of comparison; and asking peers to review the results.

3.9.4 Conformability

Conformability or confirmability suggests the extent to which findings are affected by personal interests and biases. If the research is confirmable, it should be possible to see that conclusions are grounded in the data (Walle, 2015:141).This can basically be achieved through for example triangulation, a good interview approach, confidentiality and ensuring the researcher provides his or her analysis (Anney, 2014:279).

3.10 Triangulation

Triangulation as described by Hales (2010:14) is a method of merging information from various sources to investigate a specific phenomenon of social nature for the purposes of ensuring the conclusions are strengthened and minimising the possibility of having interpretations that are not true. It is a process of bringing as much data as possible from different origins so as to be sure about the findings of the research, and avoiding interpretation that are misrepresented.

Triangulation in this case is necessitated by the fact that studying human behaviour is a complex exercise that may not be achieved through one single method. Murphy (2011:3) acknowledges that drawing on multiple viewpoints in research increases credibility. In this research, the researcher made use of different methods which included semi-structured and focus-group

interviews with different groups of participants, and documentary analysis. According to Lauri (2013:3), using multiple sources not only guarantees a clearer view of the reality of a particular phenomenon, but the researcher can be more confident about what he or she is doing. At the same time, it has the potential to convince others the value or benefits of the research, thereby facilitating trustworthiness.

Reis et al. (2017:277) identify four forms of triangulation: data triangulation, investigator triangulation, methodological triangulation and theory triangulation.

Data triangulation entails collection of information from various sources or not at the same time (Reis et al. 2017:276). Through data triangulation, the researcher is able to confirm the research findings and correct any misunderstandings by comparing one with others to ensure validity and reliability of the results. In this study, the researcher used triangulation of data collection from three different sets of participants: teachers, head teachers and Grade 12 learners from the school councils and debate clubs. This strategy provided as many sources of information as possible to provide proof of the reality regarding the phenomena being investigated.

The second form of triangulation is investigator triangulation, a process of employing other researchers, observers, interviewers or analysts of data in the study to avoid being biased as one collects, reports or analyses information from the investigation. Data triangulation also increases the possibility of making the research process rich (Sixsmith, and Daniels, 2011:6), while also improving credibility through debriefing colleagues, critiquing and checking by members (Anney, 2014:276).

In this case, the researcher worked in consultation with the supervisor, an expert in the field of philosophy of education and qualitative research, who provided guidance for the research. Through this, the researcher was able to correct mistakes that had the potential to misrepresent the results. The researcher also requested the input of two colleagues who recently completed their doctoral studies in the department of education. The identified colleagues were able to participate in the reviewing of the perceptions, insights and analyses.

Thirdly is the methodological triangulation which numerous data collection approaches are employed (Reis et al. 2017:277). It may include, for instance, the use of an interview coupled with document analysisor focus group discussions (Mills, Eurepos & Wiebe, 2010). The researcher conducted semi-structured interviews with teachers and head teachers and focus- group interviews among Grade 12 learners, and used documentary analysis. This is influenced by Creswell (2012:239) who posits that triangulation of different sources of data facilitates accuracy in the study. The researcher can then be sure that the information collected is correct if there is consistency in the outcomes from all the data sources.

3.11 Ethical considerations

This section discusses ethical measures for the study as proof of having carried out the research honestly. Graham and Fitzgerald (2010:134) describe ethics as a collection of values and beliefs that direct how research is approached. Powell, Fitzgerald and Taylor (2012:8) state that research ethics are the guidelines regarding the approved and recommended way of doing research such as the bureaucratic systems of regulation, management and governance. In other words, these refer to right or wrong conduct on which the process of research is founded.

O’Leary (2012:40) observes that every researcher has a moral obligation to ensure that the integrity and welfare of individuals and cultural groups during the research process is maintained, through conscientiousness, equity and honesty. Walliman (2011:42) advances that ethical issues in research focus on two aspects: the researcher’s personal values associated with sincerity, openness and individual integrity; and how the researcher treats the participants in terms of informed consent, confidentiality, anonymity and courtesy. Ethics also applies to the manner in which a researcher approaches the selected candidates before, during and at the end of the study. Scales (2012:3) adds that ethical issues in research include taking individual entitlements into consideration, namely, the security and welfare of each individual that is associated with the research, informed consent, the relationship between the researcher and the participants, confidentiality, and adherence to ethics both in terms of timing and approach.

In order to fulfil the demands for ethical measures the researcher first applied for ethical clearance, whose approval (Appendix A) will lead to the commencement of the data collection

process. The principles of University of South Africa research ethics demand that the researcher gives a detailed explanation of the research title, problem statement, research questions, aims and objectives of the research, research methodology and design in accordance with the guidance of the University (UNISA, 2014:4). As indicated in the data collection process section, as recommended by Creswell (2012:210), the researcher asked for permission to conduct the research at regional, district, and school levels (Appendices B, C, D).

The identified participants were initially individually and were provided with information (Appendix E) about the research which included the name of the researcher, institution, supervisor, title and aim of the research. It also included the purpose of the invitation, their role in the study, conditions for their participation and benefits, confidentiality, data storage, payment, ethical approval, research feedback and provision for them to acknowledge having read and understood the conditions for participating in the research. O’ Leary (2012:41) acknowledges that the ethical guidelines of any research include ensuring that participants give their informed consent to participate in the research and that they can only do this if they fully understand what their participation entails. The researcher took time to explain what was involved in the study and she ensured that those who expressed interest in participating filled in the consent slip (Appendix F) as evidence of having voluntarily agreed to be part of the research.

Related to informed consent is getting permission from parents of the Grade 12 learners because they were either 18 years or below and as such, they were considered to be children. Koshy (2011:81) advises that research which involves children require that informed consent be obtained from both the children and parents (Appendices F and G).

Confidentiality in this research was upheld through ensuring anonymity of both the participants and the research site. Quinlan (2011:79) posits that confidentiality entails that individuals’ or institutions’ contributions to the research remain confidential through maintaining anonymity. In line with the suggestions by Chong and Yeo (2015:263), the researcher protected the identity of the participants and research sites by using pseudonyms during the recordings of the interviews and focus group discussions, safely locking up the collected data and storing all the electronic data on a computer protected with a password.

Quinlan (2011:75) emphasises that suspicions of plagiarism could greatly compromise the integrity of the researcher’s work. The researcher thus ensured that all literature used was properly referenced.

3.12 Conclusion

In this chapter, the researcher provided and discussed reasons for employing a qualitative research design using the interpretive phenomenological approach. The use of semi-structured face-to-face and focus-group interviews, with documentary analysis was preferred for the study. Data collection procedure included identification of participants and research sites, gaining access to the participants, determining the kind of data to be gathered, development of the instruments and administering the information collection process ethically. Data analysis and processing procedures were discussed in the order of their occurrence.

In the next chapter, the researcher presents the findings from the semi-structured interviews, focus-group discussion and documentary analysis on the nature of learner performance and teaching in public secondary schools in Zambia.