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The concept of QWL was used in the industrial labour relationships and management before it was recognised in other fields (e.g. health organisations). QWL has been viewed by researchers in a variety of ways: (1) as a ‘variable’ to improve employees’ work experience (1969-1972), (2) as an ‘approach’ to improve the outcomes of both the individual and the organisation (1969-1975), (3) as a ‘method’ using specific techniques to improve work environments such as autonomous work groups, job enrichment or the design of new plans as integrated social and technical systems (1972-1975), (4) as a ‘movement’ to enhance organisational effectiveness (1975-1980), and (5) as ‘everything’ to do with people at work (1979-Now) (see Table 4.1) (Hsu & Kernohan, 2006; Nadler & Lawler, 1983; Venkatachalam & Velayudhan, 1997).

Table ‎4.1

Definitions of QWL used in industry and management

References Definition QWL entity

Walton (1975) QWL is a process by which an organisation responds to employees’ needs in developing mechanisms to allow them to share fully in making the decisions.

Variable

Wood,

Rasmussen, and Lawler, (1975)

QWL is concerned with the relationship between individuals and features of their physical, social and economic work environment. This also reflects those on-and-off the job attitudes and behaviours that society considers to be important.

Approach

Glaser (1976) QWL means more than job security, good working conditions, adequate and fair compensation, more even than an equal employment opportunity.

Methods

Greenberg and Glaster (1980)

QWL is a process by which an organisation attempts to unlock the creative potential of its people by involving them in decisions affecting their work lives.

Movement

Nadler & Lawler (1983)

QWL has been used at various times to refer to a movement, a group of methods or approaches to management in

organisations, or a variable reflecting the affective evaluations of individuals.

Everything (E)

References Definition QWL entity Heckscher

(1984)

people are the most important resource in the organisation as they are trustworthy, responsible and capable of making valuable contributions, and they should be treated with dignity and respect.

Davis (1985) QWL is the quality of relationships between employees and the total working environment.

(E) Trist (1985) QWL is both an end and a means. It is an end in itself, because

it is a highly significant component in quality of life in general and it is a means by which employees can acquire civic competencies and skills.

(E)

Kerce and Booth-Kewley (1993)

QWL is a matter of values and standards that are dependent to a large extent upon one’s cultural context.

(E) Yousuf (1996) QWL is a generic phrase that covers a person’s feelings about

every dimension of work including economic rewards, benefits, security, working conditions, organisational and interpersonal relations and their intrinsic measurement.

(E)

Cummings and Worley (1997)

QWL is a way of thinking about people, work, and

organisations involving a concern for employee well-being and organisational effectiveness.

(E)

Sirgy et al. (2001)

QWL is defined as the employee satisfaction with a variety of [working and personal] needs through resources, activities, and outcomes stemming from participation in the workplace.

(E) Rethinam and

Ismail (2008)

QWL is a wide-ranging concept, which includes adequate and fair remuneration, safe and healthy working conditions and social integration in the work organisation that enables an individual to develop and use all his or her capacities.

(E)

Adapted and modified with permission from: Hsu, M. Y., & Kernohan, G. (2006). Dimensions of hospital nurses’ quality of working life. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 54(1), 120-131. Copyright 2006 by John Wiley and Sons.

Brooks and Anderson (2005) reviewed the QWL literature and found that a comprehensive description of the QWL concept was reported in three major works: Walton (1975), Taylor (1978) and Levine, Taylor and Davis (1984) (see Table 4.2).

Table ‎4.2

Quality of work life empirical referents

Walton (1975) Taylor (1978) Levine, Taylor, & Davis (1984)

Adequate, fair compensation Adequate, fair compensation Adequate, fair compensation Safe, healthy working

conditions

Safe, healthy working

conditions Safe, healthy working conditions

Growth Growth Use of capabilities

Security Security Security

Social integration Social integration Social integration Constitutionalism Constitutionalism Constitutionalism

Work life Work life Work life

Social relevance of work Social relevance of work Social relevance of work Employer’s QWL Employer’s QWL

Societal QWL Societal QWL

Adapted with permission from: Brooks, B. A. & Anderson, M. A (2005). Defining quality of nursing work life. Nursing Economics, 23 (6), 319-326. Copyright 2005 by the Nursing Economics.

Walton (1975) proposed eight major dimensions relating to QWL based on studies of workers and their experiences at work. These included: (1) adequate and fair compensation, (2) safe and healthy working conditions, (3) immediate opportunity to use and develop human capacities, (4) opportunity for continued growth and security, (5) social integration in the work organisation, (6) constitutionalism in the work organisation, (7) work and total life space, and (8) social relevance of work life.

Taylor (1978) conducted an empirical study to investigate the underlying structure of QWL using factor analysis. A paper and pencil questionnaire that consisted of 42 items was mailed to 240 randomly chosen technical managers. The response rate was 40% (n = 95). Items of this questionnaire were built on Walton’s (1975) dimensions. However, other items were added by Taylor to incorporate what society and employers consider important regarding QWL. A principal components solution for the sample yielded an

unrotated general factor accounting for 23% of the total scale variance, while the next four factors together accounted for nearly 25% of additional variance. Factor loading of 0.385 or greater was used as the criterion for including items. This loading represents the significance threshold for p < .001 with n = 95. Thirty-two of the 42 items achieved loadings this high or higher on the five factors. Table 4.2 shows the main dimensions.

Levine, et al. (1984) defined and measured QWL in an insurance company from the perspective of white-collar employees using a step-by-step Delphi analysis. A representative panel of 64 employees was engaged in the definition process of the QWL. Cooperatively, this panel and the investigator developed a 34-item questionnaire. This tool was tested with a sample (n = 450) of the same company. Seven significant predictors of QWL were identified: (1) the degree to which superiors treat employees with respect and have confidence in their abilities, (2) variety in daily work routine, (3) challenge of work, (4) present work leads to future work opportunities, (5) self-esteem, (6) extent to which life outside of work affects life at work, and (7) the extent to which work performed by employees contributes to society.