Contemporary critical theory is deeply rooted in the work of Jürgen Habermas and is therefore also related to the Frankfurt School. Swann and Pratt (2003:197) draw on Harbermas‟s three interdependent ways to conduct scientific research namely: empirical analysis (that deals with prediction and control), historical hermeneutics (concerned with understanding) and critical theory (based on emancipation). Critical theory, according to Carr and Kemmis (1986:144), is the result of a series of critiques engaged in by individuals or groups to “expose contradictions in the rationality or the justice of social actions”.
However, for critical thinking to be relevant it must, as Bailin and Siegel (2003:181) put it, “meets relevant standards or criteria of acceptability.” This, as Chambers (2004) alludes, means not being part of party politics, but being able to voice your opinion on current events, proposed reform agendas appraise or criticise political decisions. This then results in “interpretation of social life created by individuals or groups” (Chambers 1986:144). In order to make this interpretation acceptable obviously requires evaluative, analytical and logical engagement with social behaviour. This in turn involves reasoning and critical judgment.
Lipman (1991:19) argues that “making moral judgments is not an end in itself; it is a means for improving the quality of life.” I shall briefly explore the concept of judgment. Lipman (2003:210) connects judgment with wisdom by referring to wisdom as “intelligent judgment” or “good judgment” or judgment that has emanated from experience. When you arrive at a decision, form an opinion or simply come to a conclusion, you have applied judgment. He (2003:210) argues that “every outcome of inquiry is a judgment.” The connection Lipman concludes is that judgment is a descendant of wisdom which in turn is a “chief characteristic of critical theory” (Lipman 2003:210).
Waghid (2001:45) draws on Carr (1983), Giroux (1983), and Aronowitz and Giroux (1992), who contend that critical theory has an “emancipatory interest”. This implies that critical theory should enable us to learn to see our world and us in good new ways. These ways include values, judgments and the interests of humanity. A good
understanding of these ways will influence the way we educate our children as both parents and teachers. Chambers (2004:221) posits that “Critical Theory has a normative agenda. Its stated interest is the emancipation of humanity from injustice.”
Critical theory attempts to uncover the causes of distortion and create new ways of thinking, and affects the way we respond to those we do not agree with on social, religious and political issues, and how we recognise and deal with our own motives, fears and desires. How (1995:13) posits that critical theory seeks to uncover the relationship between ideas and their social and political environment. Horkheimer (1990:244) concurs that a theory is critical only if it has an emancipatory approach “to liberate the human being from the circumstances that enslave them.” Critical theory is social theory geared toward critiquing and changing established ways of thinking and established forms of social life, in contrast to traditional “positivist and interpretive” theories oriented only towards understanding and explaining it (Waghid 2001:54).
Once you have a clearer understanding of the aforementioned elements, it should be carefully integrated “into a framework of thought which could provide a new and justifiable approach to social science” (Carr & Kemmis 1986:132). Consequently you end up with what Roderick (1986:7) calls a “practical intent.” This practicality involves questioning, making judgments, evaluating, looking for connections and categorising. This means active engagement, while at the same time being open to other points of view before making decisions.
It should be noted, however, that it is not uncommon for an individual‟s aim and purpose to be distorted or repressed. Critical social theory attempts to alert individuals to when and how this happens, and it offers ways to eliminate such distortion or repression so that, as Carr and Kemmis (1986:136) put it, “the rational pursuit of their goals can be undertaken.” This idea calls for a critical engagements and encourages individuals to take action in replacing distorted practices with less distorted practices. Any investigation that makes use of critical theory must address injustice within society and thus become confrontational and transformative.
Blake and Masschelien (2003:38) contend that “critical theory has always attempted to investigate the relationship between the individual and social and cultural
development, and always used a variety of theories and disciplines to develop a framework for understanding.” This implies that through critical theory an individual‟s behaviour can be explained through examining their relationship with the environment and culture they find themselves in. It would also enable an examination on how educational role players (especially on school level) feel with regards to the WCEDs service provision model. It should also be noted that in modern society, which is characterised by many technological advances, critical research is becoming more aware of the significant influence of social and historical forces on individuals‟ personal and world views (Kincheloe & McLaren 2005:304).
Van Wyk (2004:48) draws on Fay‟s (1987) understanding that “critical theory wants to explain a social order in such a way that it becomes itself the catalyst which leads to the transformation of this social order.” In this view, critical theory now becomes “action orientated”, aimed at uncovering harmful and distorted practices, while at the same time displaying its emancipatory and enlightening effect that leads to transformation. Because critical theory aims to explain and transform the conditions that enslave individuals, many critical theories have been developed and are still being developed. Our interpretation of matters cannot be non-theoretical. We may not be aware of the theoretical assumptions that guide our thinking, but they are there nevertheless.
To make sense of human behaviour you have to interpret people‟s actions, but to be objective is not possible, in our interpretation, especially if we attempt to take an unprejudiced standpoint outside the action and events. The interpreter will almost inevitably view a situation from a historical point of view. Kincheloe and McLaren (2005:304) confirm this point by “defining a criticalist as a researcher or theorist who attempts to use her or his work as a form of social or cultural criticism and who accepts certain basic assumptions: that all thought is fundamentally mediated by power relations that are social and historically constituted.”
Horkheimer (1993:21) claims that critical theory can only be adequate if it includes “explanatory, practical and normative” practices. It must explain problematic areas in the current social reality, identify the actors to change it and provide both clear norms for criticism and achievable goals for social transformation. He (1993:21) concludes
that critical theory “has as its object human beings as producers of their own historical form of life.” This statement confirms that Critical Theory has significant practical implications. It also fits in well with Guess‟s (1981:63) understanding that “a critical theory gives them knowledge of what changes would result if they were to apply the standards of rationality.”
All theories have shortcomings of some sort and critical theory is no exception. Chambers (2004:235) refers to Dryzek, who expresses her regret at critical theory‟s “unwillingness to engage in progressive and genuinely emancipatory politics.” She further contends that “others on the Left argue that Harbermas‟s political philosophy is so optimistic in its emancipatory vision that it bypasses, displaces, or transcends politics altogether.”
In this section I have dealt with critical hermeneutics as a methodological tool to understand the concept and development of a learning organisation. I used this methodology because of its potential to contribute to my investigation of the WCED‟s understanding of a learning organisation and their service delivery model in relation to their understanding of a learning organisation. This methodology may provide an emancipatory outcome with respect to the way we ought to understand and develop schools into learning organisations.