DETERMINACIÓN DE HALLAZGOS, CONFORMIDADES Y NO CONFORMIDADES

hollow part.link.rock 'cave'

However, note the following example of a compound involving the noun

ahisu

'bow' with a suffixed noun, in which there is no link morpheme: uehis

ue+hisu

string.bow 'bow-string'

4.1.1.2.4.1.4 Obligatorily Compounded Forms

While compounds can be derived with the second part coming from any of the parts of speech, there are some recurring morphemes that only

ever

occur in compounds. These presumably belonged unambiguously to one of the parts of speech at some earlier stage, but the specific class membership can no longer be determined. Such obligatorily compounded morphemes include the following:

holev

holeve

'large (of fruit)'

nut

nuute

'pertaining to the bush

riril

ririle

'circular, winding'

ru

ruu

'large (of body part)'

hos

ho si

'safe, good, benign'

hau

haau

'new'

matu

matuu

' old'

Examples include:

asholev ase=holeve

chestnut.large

'chestnut type with large fruit' oai nut oai nuute water bush 'rain-water/spring water' langriril langi+ririlu wind.circular 'whirlwind' molatin hos molatine hosi man good

'mortal person (rather than spirit)' oru

oo=ruu penis.large

'person with very large penis'

4.1.1.2.4.2 Verbal Compounds

It was mentioned in 4.1.1.2.4.1 that the only fully productive method of compound formation is that in which the initial element is a noun. There are, however, some forms in which the initial element is

instead a verb. The only such forms attested are:

luvoluvos asu Vuvo=Vuvosi asue 'shrub type (so called be- REDUp.deceive rat cause its fruit is found

under its leaves, luring the rat up the plant to eat it, but it is then obscured by the leaves)' luvoluvos

me lau

luvo=luvosi melau

REDUp.deceive scrub turkey

'insect type (so called because it rolls itself up into a ball after it entices the scrub turkey to eat it)'

so lein ahang soo leini ahango throw out fire

'breadfruit type (so called because it scatters the coals of the fire when roasted because it is so big)'

kiskisvot kisi=kisi=vote 'index finger (so called REDUp.poke.buttocks because it is the finger

that touches the anus in cleaning after defecation)'

of two villages' go across

We must also note the following forms:

luahin teluahin lumali telumali luahine teluahine limaalii tehunaatii 'two women' 'a few women' 'two m e n ' 'a few m e n '

which appear to be compounded from the numerals lua 'two' and tetu

'three', and the nouns ahine 'woman' and maalii, which is used as an address form in exclamations to men. E.g.

Mali! Kiles taunehek!

maalii ki+lesi taunehe=ke

man 2sg.dis.see thing.prox 'Hey man! Look at this thing!'

They are synchronically irregular however in that they become bound to the verb stem, and also in that the dual forms lose the final -a of the verb. They do not therefore seem to be synchronically analysable.

4.1.1.2.5 Phrasal Nouns

The derivation of the following nouns is more a syntactic than a morphological process, though we will for the sake of convenience discuss it at this point. The corpus contains a fair number of complex nominal phrases that function in themselves as nominal phrase heads and can be associated with a number of adjuncts or enter into a complex noun phrase construction. The special status of these kinds of forms however is reflected in the same way as is the special status of compound nouns, i.e. the sum of the meaning of the parts does not equal the meaning of the whole, there is no left-dislocation of any of the parts and the parts are inseparable. Examples of such derivations are given below:

on buluk oo+ne buluku

penis.const bull

'stockwhip'

tan ahu taa+ne dhue

excrement.const turtle

'pumice'

utivilen Makaret

uti+vile+ne makarete 'breadfruit type'

seed.vagina.const Margaret haivatin on hai+vati+ne oo+ne

fruit.head.const penis.3sg

'his glans penis'

aikol onen maso

ai+kole one+ne 'scorpion'

inst.dislodge fruit poss.man const

masoo

evening star ahat sen mav ahatu sen+ne

rock poss.leg

maavi

const lizard

'rock type on seabed'

4.1.1.3 Other Nominal Types

In addition to nouns and pronouns, the position of nominal

phrase head can be filled by an indefinite or a possessive nominal. The following examples briefly illustrate this:

Ak he havivis

aa+ku he havivii=se

poss.ed.lsg 3sg.dis.cop small.neg.exp 'Mine (to eat) will be just a bit'

Tei va tai en ahang?

tei vaa tai eni ahango

some of 3sg.real.go comp sp fire 'Has some of it gone on the fire?'

All such roots are morphologically simple with the exception of ta+taai

'any', which is derived from the root taai 'one' by initial-syllable reduplication (2.8.1) and savo=savo 'other', which is derived by re­

duplication from the singular form savo according to the pattern described in 2.8.2.

4.1.2 Adjuncts

The nominal phrase head can also be associated with one or more adjuncts. Adjuncts can be any of the following:

(a) one of the determiners

(b) an adjective

(c) an indefinite noun or

(d) a clause.

In this section, we discuss the syntactic placement of each of these various adjunct types with respect to the head and to other adjuncts, and the semantic relationship between the adjunct and the head.

4.1.2.1 Determiners

As mentioned in 3.5, there are three postposed nominal phrase determiners; kailue3 kaitelu and kaile. These mark the nominal phrase as being:

(i) definite, and

(ii) either dual (kailue), paucal (kaitelu) or plural (kaile) in number.

The plural form kaile can also mark a nominal phrase as being generic. E.g.

Molatin kailu lumai

molatine kailue luu+mai

man dl 3dl.real.come 'The two men are coming' Molatin kaitel tclumai

molatine kaitelu telu-Hnai

man pci 3pcl.real.come 'The three men are coming'

As the plural determiner kaile can mark a nominal phrase as being generic, the following example can have two readings:

Metalo kail ales kail vatte tas

metaaloo kaile a+lesi kaile vat=tee taa=se

European pi 3pl.real.see 3pl type.indef one.neg.exp

With a generic reading it is:

'(All) Europeans look alike.' and with a plural definite reading, it is:

'The (six or more) Europeans look alike.'

These determiners, although they are identical in form to the third person non-singular pronouns (4.1.1.1), they are quite different in behaviour. The following significant differences in the behaviour of these determiners and the corresponding pronouns can be noted:

(i) The determiners make no reference to person, despite the fact that they are identical in form to the third person pronouns. It is in fact possible for these determiners to be used in non-third person nominal phrases. E.g.

Lohon kail minaveretei

lohono kaile mi+na+vere+tei

boy pi 2pl.pot.be noisy.part 'Boys, don't be noisy!'

Ir temalikelik kail vasi enaut netan

iire ta+malikeliko kaile vasiie enaute netano

lpl.incl adj.black pi all sp.place down

romumoni mukok

ro+nruumo+ni+e muko+ke

lpl.incl.real.d o .t r .3sg 3sg.real.thus.prox

'We, all the black people of the world, do it like this.'

(ii) The determiners are freely used to mark number with any kind of noun as long as it is countable, whereas pronouns tend to make full number distinctions only when referring to human, or at least animate nouns. E.g.

Ai kailenek avosaini malus

aai kaile+neke a+vosaini+e malu=se

handle pl.dist 3pl.real.stick in ground.3sg 3sg.real.straight. neg.exp

'The handles were just stuck straight up in the ground.'

The fact that the same forms are used with different functions means that it is even possible to get sequences of the same form in its different functions, as in:

Kai duvon molatin kail kail aumat

kaie duvo+nV molatine kaile kaile au+mate

3sg 3sg.real.shoot.comm man pi 3pl 3pl.real.die 'When he shot the men, they died.'

4.1.2.2 Adj ectives

Adjectives follow the head of the nominal phrase and semantically ascribe to the referent some distinguishing property or quality. There is a small set of underived adjectives (3.3), as well as the following adjectives that are derived as compounds with a nominal as the first element:

haite matu hai+itee matuu 'old'

instance.indef old

haite hau hai+itee haau 'new'

instance.indef new

haisav hai=savo

instance.other

'useless/valueless

There is one fully productive adjective-deriving process, involving the addition of the prefix ta- to either a noun or a Stative verb. The derived adjective is related in meaning to the stem in the following ways:

(i) When added to a noun it forms an adjective expressing the

property that is in some way inherently and permanently characteristic of the referent of the noun stem. E.g.

NOUN STEM DERIVED ADJECTIVE

ut ute 'shore' taut ta+ute 'uncultured;

uncivilised; knowing only the ways of the bush'

das dasi 'in the

sea'

tedas ta+dasi 'knowing the

ways of the sea'

nesa nesaa 'above' tanesa ta+nesaa 'upper'

dan dano ' down tedan ta+dano 'lower'

lokohis loko=hisi 'banana pudding'

talokohis ta+loko=hisi 'yellow'

(ii) When added to a noun expressing an action or a process (i.e. one that is derived from a non-stative verb by means of the abstract

nominaliser -ene as described in 4.1.1.2.3), the prefix ta- expresses the idea that there is a purposive relationship between the head of the nominal phrase and the action or process described in the deverbal nominal. Thus:

vulimolas tatin kumalen

vulimolasu ta+tini kumale+ene

coals adj.roast sweet potato.nom ’coals for roasting sweet potato' avong taluhin taunehen

avongi ta+luhi+nV taunehe+ene

time adj.plant.comm thing.nom 'time for planting things'

tirausis takuluen tirausise ta+kulu+ene

shorts adj.swim.nom 'swimming trunks'

molatin taluvoluvos min kailen

molatine ta+luvo=luvosi mini kaile+ene

man adj.REDUp.deceive pun.dat 3pl.nom 'people to tell lies to'

It is also possible however for a deverbal nominal of this kind to derive an adjective that qualifies a noun that is in some way

ahin tahas ten siselen

ahine ta+hasu teni siisele+ene

woman adj.give birth rel road.nom

'woman who gives birth to illegitimate children' molatin taselusien

molatine ta+seluusi+ene

man adj.speak.nom 'loquacious person'

(iii) Finally, the adjectival derivative ta- can be added to a Stative verb stem to indicate that the quality is either a permanent or inherent characteristic of the head. An adjective derived in this way will

contrast in meaning with the verb as an adjunct (expressed in a relative clause) which expresses an impermanent or incidental property of something. E.g.

molatin koan gaih

molatine koani gaiho

man indef 3sg.real.strong 'a strong man'

molatin tekaih

molatine ta+kaiho

man adj.strong 'warrior/sorcerer'

The different nature of the properties expressed in these two ways can be further brought out by noting that something can be characterised impermanently and permanently in contrasting ways. It is therefore not contradictory to say:

puk tatisa koan tahos

puuku ta+tiisaa koani tahosi

book adj.bad indef 3sg.real.good 'a bad book which is good'

as a book that is characterised permanently as "bad" is usually taken to mean a pornographic book, and there is undoubtedly, in the minds of many, good pornography and bad pornography.

4.1.2.3 Indefinite Adjuncts

is that they can occur not only as nominal phrase heads, but also as adjuncts to some other head. Thus:

asuv tei kail

asuvo tei kaite

chief some of pi 'some of the chiefs' molatin haulu molatine haulue man many 'many men' tauneh koan taunehe koani thing some 'some things'

The numerals can of course also be used as indefinite adjuncts as they belong in this class. The numerals from one to sixty are

listed in the appendix. (This counting system is now generally not known by speakers under thirty or so years of age, and is seldom used even by the oldest people, who generally use instead the borrowed Bislama terms.)

The numerals are built up on the basis of the following synchronically unanalysable forms:

tai taai 1 elu elua 2 etel etelu 3 ehat ehati 4 elim elima 5 halualim haalualima 10

The number six is a compound of the verb lahi 'carry' and taai 'one':

lahitai ldhi=taai 6

’leaf' and the verbal roots lua 'two', telu 'three' and hati 'four':

laulu lau+lua 7

lautel lau+telu 8

lauhat lau+hati 9

Although the number ten is probably not synchronically analysable, it is clearly derived historically from the verbal prefix haa- expressing the number of times (5.2.2.1.1.) and the verbal roots lua 'two' and lima

'five', i.e. "two times five".

The numbers from eleven to nineteen are compounded with taai dano 'one down'. Thus: taai dano lau+telu 'eighteen'. Twenty is

expressed as hanuu mau 'whole person' (i.e. all fingers and toes), and forty as hanuu mau elua 'two whole people', and so on ad infinitum.

The intermediate numbers are expressed as compounds of hanuu savo

'another person' and the numbers from eleven to nineteen described above. So, hanuu savo taai dano lau+hati is "thirty-nine".

4.1.2.4 Clausal Adjuncts

We will not enter into any detailed discussion of the mechanics of the expression of clausal adjuncts to the head of a nominal phrase

(i.e. relative clauses) as it was pointed out in the abstract that this analysis of the grammar of Paamese would be restricted to levels lower than the clause.

Restrictive relative clauses are expressed by means of the optional subordinator ke-3 which attaches itself as a clitic to the first constituent of the clause, or the corresponding free form sub­ ordinator kekee. E.g.

Molatin kail (keke) amualial

molatine kaile (kekee) a+muali=ali

alongen ave

a+longe+nV avea

3pl.real.hear.comm bell

’Those men who had gone to the bush heard the bell.'

No relative clause can be formally headless. When there is no head semantically, the structural position of the head is occupied by the indefinite noun koa(ni) 'some'. Thus:

Koan (keke) gaih aloholoh

koani (kekee) gaiho a+loho=loho

some sub 3sg.real.strong 3pl.real.REDUp,run 'The ones who were strong ran.'

This kind of construction is also used to express non-restrictive

relative clauses, with the indefinite head functioning as an adjunct to another nominal phrase head:

Molatin koan (keke) gaih dain

moldtine koani (kekee) gaiho dai+nV

man some sub 3sg.real.strong 3sg.real.cut.comm matou

matou

copra

'The man, who was strong, cut the copra.'

Clausal adjuncts to the indefinite nominal koa(ni) are also used in certain other situations where a clause is semantically the object of a verb or a preposition. The verb suvali, when there is a clausal object, requires that this be expressed as an adjunct to the indefinite form:

Kumoni hesuval koan inau namümoni

ki+wno+ni+e he+suvati koani inau na-Hnuiuno+ni+e

2sg.dis.do.tr.3sg 3sg.dis-ressemble some lsg lsg,real,do tr 3sg 'Do it like I did it.'

The causal preposition veni 'because of', when it has a clausal object, can also express this in the same way:

Hek mah ven koan nedain matou

hee+ku maahi veni koani na+dai+nV matou

hand.lsg 3sg.real.sore caus some lsg.real.cut.comm copra 'My hand is sore because I've been cutting copra.'

The fact that the koa(ni) in these forms is treated as the head of a nominal phrase rather than simply as a marker of subordination is justified by its behaviour in taking clitics and being followed by modifiers, which characteristically attach to and follow respectively the first constituent of the nominal phrase:

Kikur koan varei mul nesa

ki+kuri koani vaarei mule nesaa

2sg.dis.take some precisely 3sg.real,exist above 'Take the one right up on top.'

The subordinator kee-/kekee on the other hand does not behave in this way.

4.1.2.5 Ordering of Postposed Adjuncts

There is a certain degree of freedom in the relative placing of postposed nominal phrase adjuncts. This freedom of order is possible as the adjuncts are related semantically only to the head and not to any of the other adjuncts. There does however appear to be an order that can be set up as the "preferred" order, in that it accounts for approxi­ mately 85% of those nominal phrases examined which contained more than one adjunct. (Note however that it is unlikely that a nominal phrase would contain a filler from each of these syntactic slots. Three or four would appear to be the normal sort of maximum.)

HEAD + DETERMINER + NUMERAL + TA- + OTHER + RELATIVE ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVES CLAUSE

4.2 Complex Nominal Phrases

A complex nominal phrase can be distinguished from a simple nominal phrase in that it has two heads rather than one. (It is of

course possible for one of the nominal phrases itself to be grammatically complex, with two heads. This construction therefore allows for

particular kind of semantic relationship to each other, determined according to the way the heads of the two phrases are related morpho­ logically and syntactically. There are four quite distinct types of grammatical relationships that can hold between the heads of two nominal phrases in this kind of construction, these being referred to as the prepositional, linked, suffixed and appositional constructions. In the sections that follow, we will describe these morphological and syntactic relationships; the semantic distinctions they encode however will be discussed in detail in chapter six, as there are close parallels between the various noun-noun relationships and the roles a noun plays in an event with a predicate.

4.2.1 Prepositional Construction

As was mentioned in 3.4 there are five prepositions in Paamese. These can be used to link two nominal phrases as illustrated below:

komal min Siti

komalu mini sitii

ldl.excl pun.dat Siti 'Siti and I'

aut ten alang aute teni alangi place rel wind

'windy place'

s aut in ran at as sautine rani atasi long way abl sea

In document Borrador de la Declaratoria de Impacto Ambiental Proyecto de Alojamiento “El Descanso del Guía” (página 37-44)