The recommendations resulting from this study are grouped under the two main areas of improvements to gold production and the
application of safer techniques with minimal impact on human health and the environment.
Under the two main recommendations are specific actions that are presented below: 1. To improve the efficiency in gold extraction and production,
The miners must practise grade control, ore characterisation analysis,
mechanised comminution and cyanidation within the Wau ASGM industry. This will greatly improve gold production results and hence, profit.
The MRA, through the SSMTC and its Geological Survey Division, may assist miners by conducting ore mineralogy characterisation studies, grade analysis and provide technical advice on the most appropriate techniques for mining.
The SSMTC in Wau can also experiment on a pilot cyanidation plant to process ore from miners. MRA can also collaborate with other organisations or countries such as Massey University and Indonesia for technical
assistance in implementing a small cyanidation plant. This will be run by the MRA to process ores for miners and maximise gold recovery, which will in
122
turn lead to greater profits and hence, enhance economic development for Wau.
2. Use techniques with minimal impact on human health and the natural environment.
Since mercury amalgamation is still a common practice, the relevant government authorities such as the MRA, CEPA and Health Department should undertake regularly monitoring of soil, water sources and miners for Hg levels. Constant public awareness on the dangers of mercury and the use of safer practises such as the tin fish retort and manufactured retorts should be widely disseminated on local radio, TV and social media in both English and Tok Pisin. The use of multiple media platforms will reach the wider masses throughout the country and will eventually change the mental attitudes and the practices of miners on the use of mercury over time. The MRA, through the SSMTC in Wau, should also invest in a fume hood
built with condensers and filters where the miners can safely burn their Au- Hg amalgam.
A proper health assessment into mercury poisoning in the miners of Wau is crucial to understand the scale of the problem and to provide evidence of the adverse effects of Hg amalgamation.
Gold mining is a non-renewable industry. Therefore, the PNG government or the MRA in conjunction with the Department of Agriculture must
encourage and teach miners to apply their land to sustainable uses such as food farming, cash-crop farming and forestry.
123
REFERENCES
911Metallurgist. (2017). High/Low Sulphidation Epithermal Silver/Gold Copper Porphyry Deposits Retrieved from
https://www.911metallurgist.com/blog/highlow-sulphidation-epithermal-silver- gold-copper-porphyry-deposits
Albin-Lackey, C., & Ganesan, A. (2011). Gold's Costly Dividend: Human Rights Impacts of Papua New Guinea's Porgera Gold Mine. . Retrieved from
https://www.hrw.org/report/2011/02/01/golds-costly-dividend/human-rights- impacts-papua-new-guineas-porgera-gold-mine
Anderson, C., Moreno, F., & Meech, J. (2005). A field demonstration of gold phytoextraction technology. Minerals Engineering, 18(4), 385-392.
ATSDR, A. f. T. S. a. D. R. (n.d.). Health Effects of Mercury Exposure. Retrieved from http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/mercury/docs/11-229617-E-
508_HealthEffects.pdf
Aulda, M. (2015). Historical Tenements and the Conversion Process. Paper presented at the 2nd Alluvial Mining Convention.
Banks, G. A. (2014). Papua New Guinea National Human Development Report. Retrieved from hdr.undp.org/en/content/papua-new-guinea-national-human- development-report-2014
Baranova, N., & Zotov, A. (1998). Stability of gold sulphide species (AuHS}) aq)) and Au (HS) aq)) at 300, 350~ and 500 bar: experimental study. Mineralogical Magazine A, 62, 116-117.
Bose-O'Reilly, S., Schierl, R., Nowak, D., Siebert, U., William, J. F., Owi, F. T., & Ir, Y. I. (2016). A preliminary study on health effects in villagers exposed to mercury in a small-scale artisanal gold mining area in Indonesia. Environ Res, 149(2016), 274-281. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2016.04.007
Chemistry Explained, C. (2017). Gold
Retrieved from http://www.chemistryexplained.com/Ge-Hy/Gold.html
Christie, A., & Brathwaite, B. (1997). Mineral commodity report 14-gold. New Zealand Mining, 21, 21-40.
Chryssoulis, S. L., & Cabri, L. J. (1990). The significance of gold mineralogical balances in mineral processing. Transactions of the Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, Section A: Mining Technology, 99(January-April 1990).
Chudnenko, K., & Pal‟yanova, G. (2013). Thermodynamic properties of Au–Hg binary solid solution. THERMOCHIMICA ACTA, 566, 175– 180.
doi:10.1016/j.tca.2013.05.041
Cobley, C. M., & Xia, Y. (2009). Gold and nanotechnology. Elements, 5(5), 309-313. Corbett, G. J. (2002). Epithermal gold for explorationists. AIG Presidents Lecture.,
April 2002
Corbett, G. J., & Leach, T. M. (1998). Southwest Pacific Rim Gold-Copper Systems: Structure, Alteration and Mineralisation (Vol. Special Publication N. 6.): Soc. Economic Geologists.
Craw, D., McLachlan, C., Negrini, M., & Becker, N. (2017). Quantification and Prediction of Bulk Gold Fineness at Placer Gold Mines: A New Zealand Example. Minerals, 7(11). doi:10.3390/min7110226
Crump, K. S., Kjellstrom, T., Shipp, A. M., Silvers, A., & Stewart, A. (1998). Influence of prenatal mercury exposure upon scholastic and psychological test
124
performance: Benchmark analysis of a New Zealand cohort. Risk Analysis, 18(6), 701-713. doi:DOI 10.1023/B:RIAN.0000005917.52151.e6
Cussen, M. J., Wangu, A., McCulla, M. S., & Tan Loi, D. (1986). Geology and mineralisation of the Wau area, Papua New Guinea. Geological Survey of Papua New Guinea. Report, 86/16. Retrieved from
Deer, W. A., Howie, R. A., & Zussman, J. (2005). An introduction to the Rock-forming Minerals (2nd Edition ed.). Essex, England: Pearson Education Ltd.
Denwer, K. P. (1993). Geology and Mineralisation of the Kerimenge-Lemenge Prospect, Wau District, Papua New Guinea. (Masters Thesis), University of Tasmania, Tasmania.
Denwer, K. P., Leach, T. M., & Mowat, B. A. (1995). Mineralization of the Morobe Goldfield, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea. Paper presented at the Pacific Rim Congress 95
Auckland, New Zealand.
Dow, D. B., Smit, J. A., & Page, R. W. (1974). WAU 1:250 000 Geological Map Explanatory Notes, Sheet SB/55-14. Retrieved from
Drace, K., Kiefer, A. M., Veiga, M. M., Williams, M. K., Ascari, B., Knapper, K. A., . . . Cizdziel, J. V. (2012). Mercury-free, small-scale artisanal gold mining in Mozambique: utilization of magnets to isolate gold at clean tech mine. Journal of Cleaner Production, 32(2012), 88-95. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.03.022 Driscoll, C. T., Mason, R. P., Chan, H. M., Jacob, D. J., & Pirrone, N. (2013). Mercury
as a Global Pollutant: Sources, Pathways, and Effects. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2013(47), 4967−4983. doi:dx.doi.org/10.1021/es305071v
Einaudi, M. T., Meinert, L. D., & Newberg, R. J. (1981). Skarn deposits. Economic Geology, 75th Anniversary Volume, 317-392.
Fisher, N. H. (1945). The fineness of gold with special reference to the Morobe goldfield, New Guinea. Econ. Geol.(40), 449-495.
Fuerstenau, M. C., Jameson, G. J., & Yoon, R. H. (2007). Froth flotation: a century of innovation: SME.
Geology.com. (2008). Papua New Guinea Map and Satellite Image. Retrieved from
http://geology.com/world/papua-new-guinea-satellite-image.shtml
Gow, R. N., Young, C., Huang, H., Hope, G., & Takasaki, Y. (2015).
Spectroelectrochemistry of enargite I: Reactivity in alkaline solutions. Minerals & Metallurgical Processing, 32(1), 6-13.
Gunson, A. J. (2004). Mercury and artisanal and small-scale gold miners in China (Masters Thesis). (Master of Applied Science Master of Applied Science ), University of British Columbia. Retrieved from
https:/open.library.ubc.ca/cIRcle/collections/ubctheses/831/items/1.0081074 GVE, G. V. E. (2017). Smelting. Retrieved from
http://www.gve.com.pg/services.html#smelting
Hylander, L. D., Plath, D., Miranda, C. R., Lucke, S., Ohlander, J., & Rivera, A. T. F. (2007). Comparison of different gold recovery methods with regard to pollution control and efficiency. Clean-Soil Air Water, 35(1), 52-61.
doi:10.1002/clen.200800024
International-Cyanide-Management-Institute. (2018). Cyanide Facts. Retrieved from
https://www.cyanidecode.org/cyanide-facts/environmental-health-effects
Javia, I., & Sisiop, P. (2010). Paper on Challenges and Achievements on Small scale mining and Gender. Papua New Guinea. Paper presented at the SIDS-18, New York.
Krisnayanti, B. D., Anderson, C. W., Utomo, W. H., Feng, X., Handayanto, E., Mudarisna, N., . . . Khususiah. (2012). Assessment of environmental mercury
125
discharge at a four-year-old artisanal gold mining area on Lombok Island, Indonesia. J Environ Monit, 14(10), 2598-2607. doi:10.1039/c2em30515a Kuyucak, N., & Akcil, A. (2013). Cyanide and removal options from effluents in gold
mining and metallurgical processes. Minerals Engineering, 50-51 (2013), 13-29. Leonhard, S. (2016). SMALL SCALE MINERS LEARNING PROGRAM PAPUANEW
GUINEA. Paper presented at the 3rd PNG ALLUVIAL MINING CONVENTION & TRADESHOW 2016, Goroka, Papua New Guinea. Lowenstein, P. L. (1982). Economic Geology of the Morobe Goldfield. Papua New
Guinea Geol. Survey
Macdonald, E. H. (1983). Alluvial Mining. The Geology, Technology and Economics of Placers. London: Chapman and Hall.
Marsden, J., & House, I. (2006). The chemistry of gold extraction: SME.
Martin, G. (2017). The meaning and origin of the expression: As mad as a hatter. Retrieved from http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/mad-as-a-hatter.html
Mineral Resources Authority, M. (2009). Small Scale Mining moves to develop sector. Mineral Tok (March-April 2009).
Neale, T. (2003). Historical Overview of Mining Development in PNG. Retrieved from Nelson, R. W., Bartram, J. A., & Christie, M. H. (1990). Hidden Valley gold–silver
deposit. In F. E. Hughes (Ed.), Geology of the mineral deposits of Australia and Papua New Guinea (pp. 1763-1767). Australia: Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.
Nsimba, E. B. (2009). Cyanide and cyanide complexes in the goldmine polluted land in the East and Central Rand Goldfields, South Africa. (Master of Science), University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa.
Pacific Mining Watch, P. (2015). Mining authority reports growth in small scale mining in PNG. Retrieved from
http://mine.onepng.com/2015/05/miningauthorityreportsgrowthin.html
Palme, H., & O'Neill, H. S. C. (2003). Cosmochemical estimates of mantle composition. Treatise on geochemistry, 2, 568.
Mining (Safety) Act 1977 & Regulations (1977). PNG Mining Act, (1992).
Patjole, C. (2018). Wafi-Golpu to be the largest complex mine. Retrieved from Loop PNG website: http://www.looppng.com/business/wafi-golpu-to-be-largest- complex-mine-76646
Pearson, R. G. (1963). Hard and soft acids and bases. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 85, 3533-3539.
Porter-Geoconsultancy. (2003). Morobe Goldfield - Wau, Edie Creek, Hidden Valley, Kerimenge, Bulolo. Retrieved from
www.portergeo.com.au/database/mineinfo.asp?mineid=mn812
Porter, M. E. (1985 ). Competitive advantage: creating and sustaining superior performance. . New York: FreePress.
Pryor, E. (1965). Mineral Processing. New York: Elsevier.
Robb, L. (2013). Introduction to ore-forming processes: John Wiley & Sons. Samar, P. (2015). Application by MRA-Small Scale Mining Training Center to the
UNEP Global Mercury Partnership [Letter]. . Retrieved from
https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/12599/Mineral_Resourc es_Authority-_Papua_New_Guinea.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
Samar, P. (2015). Mineral Resources & Mining Opportunities. Paper presented at the Mines & Money 2015, Hong Kong.
126
content/uploads/2015/04/24Mar15_Stream-A_1505_Philip-Samar_Papua-New- Guinea-Mineral-Resources-Authority.pdf
Saunders, J. A., Hofstra, A. H., Goldfarb, R. J., & Reed, M. H. (2014). 13.15 -
Geochemistry of Hydrothermal Gold Deposits A2 - Holland, Heinrich D. In K. K. Turekian (Ed.), Treatise on Geochemistry (Second Edition) (pp. 383-424). Oxford: Elsevier.
Schroeder, W. H., & Munthe, J. (1998). Atmospheric mercury-An overview. Atmos. Environ., 1998(32), 809−822.
Sheppard, S., & Cranfield, L. C. (2012). Geological framework and mineralization of Papua New Guinea-an update. Papua New Guinea Mineral Resources Authority. Sillitoe, R., Baker, E. M., & Brooks, W. A. (1984). Gold deposits and hydrothermal
eruption breccias associated with a maar volcano at Wau, Papua New Guinea. Economic Geology, 79, 638-655.
Sillitoe, R. H. (2010). Porphyry copper systems. Economic Geology, 105(1), 3-41. Sillitoe, R. H., & Hedenquist, J. W. (2003). Linkages between Volcanotectonic Settings,
Ore-Fluid Compositions, and Epithermal Precious Metal Deposits. Society of Economic Geologists, Special Publication (10), 315–343.
Simmons, S. F., White, N. C., & John, D. A. (2005). Geological characteristics of epithermal precious and base metal deposits. Economic Geology, 100th Anniversary Volume, 485-522.
Spiridonov, E., & Yanakieva, D. (2009). Modern mineralogy of gold: overview and new data. ArcheoSciences, 2(33), 67-73. doi:10.4000/archeosciences.2034
Sprovieri, F., Pirrone, N., Ebinghaus, R., Kock, H., & Dommergue, A. (2010). A review of worldwide atmospheric mercury measurements. . Atmos. Chem. Phys.,
2010(10 ), 8245−8265.
Susapu, B., & Crispin, G. (2001). Report on small-scale mining in Papua New Guinea. Retrieved from
Syka, M. C. (1985). Paragenetic, fluid inclusions, geochemical and stable isotope studies in epithermal vein mineralization in the Wau District, Papua New Guinea. (BSc (Hons) BSc (Hons) thesis (unpublished)), Monash University, Melbourne.
Tailao, P. (2016). Safety aspects of using machine(s) in alluvial & small scale mining projects in PNG. Paper presented at the Small Scale Mining Convention –3rd– 4thNov. 2016, Goroka, Papua New Guinea.
UN. (2017). Becoming a party to the Minamata Convention on Mercury. Retrieved from https://www.google.com.pg/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=http://www.merc uryconvention.org/Portals/11/documents/Awareness%2520raising/FACT%2520 SHEETS/Becoming%2520a%2520Party%2520to%2520the%2520Minamata%2 520Convention%2520on%2520Mercury_COP1%25202017.pdf&ved=2ahUKE wikmpu04e_eAhUR448KHZjoDSgQFjABegQIBxAB&usg=AOvVaw1Jj5Cgcj SPMpodgaN0uzNB
UNEP. (2013). Global Mercury Assessment 2013: Sources, Emissions, Releases, and Environmental Transport. Retrieved from
http://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/7984/-
Global%20Mercury%20Assessment-201367.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y
UNEP. (2017). UN Environment Minamata Convention on Mercury. Countries. . Retrieved from
http://www.mercuryconvention.org/Countries/Notifications/tabid/3826/language /en-US/Default.aspx
127
Veiga, M. M., Angeloci, G., Hitch, M., & Velasquez-Lopez, P. C. (2014). Processing centres in artisanal gold mining. Journal of Cleaner Production, 64(2014), 535- 544. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.08.015
Veiga, M. M., Maxson, P. A., & Hylander, L. D. (2006). Origin and consumption of mercury in small-scale gold mining. Journal of Cleaner Production, 14, 436- 447. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2004.08.010
Veiga, M. M., Metcalf, S. M., Baker, R. F., Klein, B., Davis, G., Bamber, A., . . . Singo, P. (2006). Manual for Training Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Miners
Veiga, M. M., Nunes, D., Klein, B., Shandro, J. A., Velasquez, P. C., & Sousa, R. N. (2009). Mill leaching: a viable substitute for mercury amalgamation in the
artisanal gold mining sector? Journal of Cleaner Production, 17(15), 1373-1381. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2009.03.012
Velasquez-Lopez, P. C., Veiga, M. M., & Hall, K. (2010). Mercury balance in
amalgamation in artisanal and small-scale gold mining: identifying strategies for reducing environmental pollution in Portovelo-Zaruma, Ecuador. Journal of Cleaner Production, 18(3), 226-232. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2009.10.010
Vlassopoulos, D., & Wood, S. A. (1990). Gold speciation in natural waters: I. Solubility and hydrolysis reactions of gold in aqueous solution. Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta, 54(1), 3-12. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0016- 7037(90)90189-R
Wafi-Golpu Joint Venture, W. (2018). Wafi-Golpu Project Environmental Impact Statement. Retrieved from https://www.wafigolpujv.com/eis987654321
Walshe, J. L., & Cleverley, J. S. (2009). Gold Deposits: Where, When and Why. Elements, 5(5), 288-288. doi:10.2113/gselements.5.5.288
Wang, J., Feng, X., Anderson, C. W., Xing, Y., & Shang, L. (2012). Remediation of mercury contaminated sites - A review. J Hazard Mater, 221-222, 1-18. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2012.04.035
Whittle, R. (2016). The Business Architecture, Value Streams and Value Chains. Retrieved from
http://www.bainstitute.org/resources/articles/businessarchitecturevaluestreamsan dvaluechains
Williams-Jones, A. E., Bowell, R. J., & Migdisov, A. A. (2009). Gold in solution. Elements, 5(5), 281-287.
Williamson, A., & Hancock, G. (2005). The geology and mineral potential of Papua New Guinea. Papua New Guinea.
Youngson, J. H., Wopereis, P., Kerr, L. C., & Craw, D. (2002). Au‐Ag‐Hg and Au‐Ag alloys in Nokomai and Nevis valley placers, northern Southland and Central Otago, New Zealand, and their implications for placer‐source relationships. New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, 45(1), 53-69.
doi:10.1080/00288306.2002.9514959
Zhou, J., Jago, B., & Martin, C. (2004). Establishing the Process Mineralogy of Gold Ores. Technical Bulletin, 03.
Zhu, Y., An, F., & Tan, J. (2011). Geochemistry of hydrothermal gold deposits: a review. Geoscience Frontiers, 2(3), 367-374.
128
7
List of Personal Communication
C. Anderson is a science professor at Massey University and the main supervisor of this study.
F. Chitonga is a geologist and consultant with the Perth-based mining consultant group Deka Dynamics.
J. James is from Wau and comes from one of the rich “ASGM” families mining in Mt
Kaindi. She has a full time job but is also a seasonal miner.
I. Javia was working for the MRA as a senior trainer at the SSMTC in Wau. She was quite helpful during the first field trip to Wau. She has an environmental science background and currently works as a private consultant in the ASGM industry of PNG where she assists local mining groups start and run small-scale mining projects.
N. Minards is a scientific technical officer at the MMIC at Massey University.
T.Robert is a seasonal miner in the ASGM sector of PNG and is knowledgeable on the mining practises at Kainantu.
R. Satra is from a mixed parentage of Bougainville and Morobe and resides in Wau. He works at the corporate Hidden Valley Au mine. He is very knowledgeable on the mining techniques within the ASGM sectors of both provinces.
V. Kula is a senior officer in CEPA who was in charge of overseeing the Mercury Initial Assessment program in PNG.
129