Tchaikovsky, Peter Ilich, (1840-1893), was the first Russian composer whose music became part of the standard concert program in western Europe. Tchaikovsky had a gift for creating memorable lyric melodies and for contrasting instrumental sounds, particularly those of wind instruments, in his orchestrations.
Tchaikovsky combined native Russian materials with western European influences. His scores contain quotations and transformations of Russian folk melodies. Tchaikovsky's music contains varied and contrasting moods. The last movement of Symphony No. 6 (1893) projects a dark and melancholy atmosphere. This symphony is also known as the Pathetique (Pathetic). However, his Slavonic March (1876) and the 1812 Overture (1882) are spirited and colorful examples of nationalism in Russian music. Some of Tchaikovsky's most original orchestral textures and appealing melodies appear in his ballet scores, from which he arranged concert suites.
His life. Tchaikovsky was born in Votkinsk, Russia. He entered a law school in St. Petersburg in 1850. From 1862 through 1865, he studied music at the St. Petersburg Conservatory with Anton Rubinstein, a Russian pianist and composer. At the conservatory Tchaikovsky became the first Russian composer to receive systematic Western-style academic training in the fundamentals of music.
In 1866, Tchaikovsky began teaching at the Moscow Conservatory of Music. During the next several years, his early emotional sensitivity developed into long periods of depression. But he wrote some of his most optimistic music during this time. Tchaikovsky was married briefly in 1877. However, he and his wife separated after a few weeks, and he left Russia to travel in Switzerland and Italy.
In 1876, Tchaikovsky began his correspondence with Nadezhda von Meck, a wealthy widow who admired his music. She offered financial support so he could devote himself to composition. She insisted that they never meet, but for years they exchanged letters. Assured of a steady income, Tchaikovsky left the Moscow Conservatory in 1877 to concentrate on composition. He also began to travel widely and in 1891 conducted some of his works in concerts in Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York City.
His music. Tchaikovsky's six numbered symphonies and his Manfred Symphony (1886) are landmarks in his artistic development. His first three symphonies (written 1866, revised 1874; written 1872, revised 1880; and 1875) are performed less often than the last three. His Symphony No. 4 (1878) is his first success in the symphonic form, and Symphony No. 5 (1888) is excellent from the standpoint of formal construction. Symphony No. 6 departed from tradition through its tragic final movement. Other important orchestral works include Italian Capriccio (1880), the fantasy-overture Romeo and Juliet (3rd version, 1886), the symphony fantasy Francesca da Rimini (1877), and four orchestral suites (1879, 1884, 1885, and 1887).
Tchaikovsky is remembered today outside Russia primarily for his orchestra works. However, he devoted equal attention throughout his career to opera. Of his nine completed operas, only Eugene Onegin (1879) and The Queen of Spades (1890) have gained popularity in the West. Both are based on works by Alexander Pushkin, a Russian writer who died in 1837. Tchaikovsky's other music for the stage includes three ballets: Swan Lake (1877), The Sleeping Beauty (1890), and The Nutcracker (1892).
EMBROIDERY
Embroidery is the art of stitching decorations on a fabric or similar material with a needle and thread. Stitches can be combined to make an unlimited variety of designs, including flowers, animals, people, and abstract patterns. The design is drawn on the fabric and then embroidered, or it is created during the embroidering process.
Since prehistoric times, most cultures have developed their own embroidery styles. People embroider clothing and use embroidered furnishings to decorate their homes and public buildings. Embroidered clothing ranges from simple undergarments to royal robes decorated with gold and silver threads. Embroidered furnishings include bed linens, chair covers, tablecloths, and wallhangings. Thousands of hours may be needed to richly embroider a garment or furnishing with millions of tiny stitches.
Traditionally, craftworkers and hobbyists embroider by hand. Today, however, machines do most embroidering of factory products. Home sewing machines can be equipped with special attachments for embroidery.
Materials. Fabric used for embroidery is called backing fabric. It can be any fabric through which the embroiderer can pull embroidery thread without damaging the fabric or thread. Common backing fabrics include cotton, linen, silk, and wool. Some people use cardboard, leather, and other materials. Embroidery threads range from thin strands to thick yarns. The most widely used threads include embroidery floss, linen, pearl cotton, and yarn. Various sizes of sewing needles are used for embroidery. The size chosen depends on the kind of backing fabric and thread being used.
Embroiderers select materials that are best suited for the finished product. For example, embroidered chair covers that get heavy use are made from durable fabrics and sturdy threads. Wallhangings are exposed to less wear than chair covers and can be made from any materials. Some people attach buttons, shells, or other objects to their embroidery. Embroiderers often stretch their backing fabric tightly across a stretcher frame or hoop before starting to stitch. This method is especially helpful for embroidering fine, detailed work. When working with large stitches on heavy fabrics, the embroiderer can spread the fabric loosely.
Embroidery stitches. There are only a few basic embroidery stitches, but hundreds of variations of them have been developed. Most stitches belong to one of four groups: (1) flat, (2) knotted, (3) chained, and (4) looped. Flat stitches lie straight and flat against the fabric. They can be made in any length and direction to fill in an area. Knotted stitches form knots of thread on the fabric surface and give textural effects to the embroidery. Chained stitches form loops that link together. Looped stitches are curved. Chained and looped stitches are used to outline and fill in designs.