DETERMINACIÓN E IMPOSICIÓN DE SANCIONES

Researchers agree that problem solving is crucial when teaching for musical understanding (Wiggins, 2001; Elliott, 2014). In Wiggins’ (2001:51) approach to musical understanding, she uses the three musical actions: performing, listening and creating, as framework in developing musical problems62 for children. She links vocal and instrumental performance experiences with performance-based problems; analytical listening experiences with listening-based problems; and compositional and improvisational experiences with creating- based problems (2001:51). Giving learners the chance to solve these problems (or challenges) will result in musical independence in learners (Wiggins, 2001:51; Kindall- Smith, 2010:36; Elliott, 2014).

Good musical problems can be recognised by the following elements (Wiggins, 2001:51- 52): 1) They involve musical thought which can be thinking in sound (learners hearing musical ideas in their heads); and 2) They enable learners to act on musical ideas (performing the music that they hear in their heads, analysing what they hear during a listening experience, or using musical ideas in compositions or improvisations).

Following is a brief discussion of Wiggins’ (2001:51-60) approach to problem solving in the general music classroom.

64 3.4.3.1 Solving musical problems through performing63

When performing a new song or piece, problem solving takes place. It is important to note that mimicking a song will not be as challenging for learners than when they are expected to figure out specific elements in a song: melodic contour, texture, form, dynamics or tempo (Wiggins, 2001:53). These elements link directly to listening to the music while solving the problem. Making decisions when performing and reflecting on a performance are an integral part of problem solving (Wiggins, 2001:53-54; Elliott, 2014).

3.4.3.2 Solving musical problems through listening

Listening goes hand-in-hand with performing. Problem-solving when listening refers more to analytical listening; focusing on specific elements in a work. Listening is the most personal form of problem solving because no one will know what an individual hears if they do not communicate it. This is why it is important that listening-based problems will include some way of communicating that which is being heard, for example, through gestures or graphic representations. Investigating music through listening gives learners a chance to gain an understanding of how music is put together (Wiggins, 2001:56).

3.4.3.3 Solving musical problems through creating

Composing, improvising and arranging are included when designing creative problems. The aspect of creating music is not as popular as performing and listening in the music classroom because teachers are less confident when using creative problems (Wiggins, 2001:84; Dolloff, 2005:286). Wiggins (2001) distinguishes between creative problems under the following headings:

a) Composing

“Any time students engage in preplanned performance of original musical ideas, they are composing” (Wiggins, 2001:84).64

Composition in the general music classroom will mainly refer to composing songs or instrumental music. Composition is not for a selected few with expertise in music. Children can also learn to be a part of the creative process by developing original musical ideas using instruments, computer software or creative sounds (Wiggins, 2001:84-85). Composition problems will mainly focus on what learners already know from

63 _{For Elliott (2014), listening is in direct relation to performing, but for this section Wiggins’ (2001) original}

outline will be used.

64 _{The creative process involved in composition has been highly accounted for in Swanwick’s studies of musical}

65 prior performing and listening experiences. It is best to construct problems around specific elements, for example form, dynamics or tempo. These problems must be kept simple, by rather using a “less is more” approach when desiging composition problems. This will give learners the chance to focus on a specific element when composing, without feeling overwhelmed (Wiggins, 2001:86). The teacher plays an important role in the successful execution of the composition exercise. Preparation in composition assignments are crucial: “Before they begin, students need to feel as though they already know what to do in order to be successful.” All efforts need to be embraced, focusing not so much on the perfect product, but on learning through the process (Wiggins, 2001:87).

Songwriting is also classified as composition. With young children, teacher support is essential. Here the focus will be on composing with the class as a whole, and guidance with a topic, lyrics, melody, structure, accompaniment and arrangement is important. As the children get more advanced, the process and experience of regular song-writing will equip them with skills to compose in smaller groups or on their own (Wiggins, 2001:88-98).

b) Improvising

The key to improvisation is spontaneity. It is not pre-planned like composition, because improvisation happens during performance. It is for this reason that the ideas created whilst improvising are difficult to reproduce (Wiggins, 2001:101). Children are still confident to create music on the spot, because they have not yet developed self-consciousness towards improvisation. They see improvising as “thinking out loud”. It is important to use good examples in the classroom as a framework for highlighting that which was successful in specific improvisations (Wiggins, 2001:101).

Improvisation can be structured (by using specific chord-progressions, for example), unstructured (free sounds) and by using voices (over a repeating chord progression, for example). Storytelling through music, creating a mood, music that is conducted (by following conducting signals) and a movie theme with background music are ideas for improvising experiences (Wiggins, 2001:102-103).

c) Arranging

Arranging music can also be seen as composing. Arranging is taking someone else’s musical ideas and presenting it in a new way. Learners need to have a good understanding of musical ideas in order to rearrange them into something different than the original. Arranging musical material enhances the musical understanding of a particular piece that is being arranged (Wiggins, 2001:105).

66 3.4.3.4 Problem finding and problem reduction

For Elliott (1995:73; 2014) it is also important to, apart from problem solving, distinguish further between problem finding and problem reduction, because the growth of musical understanding depends on these processes. To solve a problem one needs to be able to find the problem and identify it. In order to find a problem, one therefore needs to know what the specific expectations and goals of a musical practice are in relation to one’s music-making and listening. Problem reduction refers to reducing a problem in pursuit of musicianship. Problem reduction is “necessary and intelligent” (Elliott, 1995:74), but must not be mistaken for musical problem solving. Problem reduction focuses on making a problem less of a problem, whereas musical problem solving focuses on using certain skills to actually solve the problem.