SECTION I: Reprogramming tumor metabolism
Aim 2. Development of nanotechnology approaches based on tumor metabolism
This emphasis on news mirrors the profession’s own stress on objectivity and the related occupation hierarchies that follow from it, as Tunstall found when he investigated the views of specialist journalists working in British news organisations in 1971. Tunstall defined his fields in relation to the three over‐
arching goals he had identified for news organisations. By considering the self‐
image of the specialists in a particular field, the views of other specialists about those in a particular field and the views of senior executives, he determined the over‐riding goal of each specialist field. These ranged from the non‐revenue prestige goals of the foreign correspondent and political lobby, through the audience goals of crime and football reporting to the advertising goals of fashion and motoring.
While only 18% of the selected specialists were prepared to see their own field as having an advertising interest, 42% were prepared to acknowledge circulation/audience interest. This demonstrated for Tunstall the ‘greater legitimacy within journalism of audience interest’ (82) and the relative denigration within the profession of commercial areas focused on gaining advertising revenues. Tunstall found that ‘occupational pecking order is inversely related to the revenue goal emphasis in particular fields’ (108). So when specialists were asked about the relative status of specializations they universally placed either foreign or political reporting in the highest regard and motoring in the lowest:
The specialists acknowledge a status order, which accords the highest status to non‐revenue foreign correspondence, followed by the political lobby, the mixed fields, then the audience fields, the motoring correspondents have a lower relative opinion of themselves than does any other field about itself (110)
The operating norm of objectivity means that the farther away from the
economic revenue goal journalists are placed the higher they will be regarded within their industry.
Tunstall is almost unique in conducting a relational study of specialist fields in British journalism, but even he acknowledged a bias towards non‐
revenue prestige goals in his own research and that has been repeated in numerous other studies that have examined journalists through the lens of the public sphere, objectivity and professionalism. This emphasis leads to a partial analysis as Cottle points out:
Ideals of ‘objectivity’ and its closest correlates ‘balance’, ‘impartiality’
‘fairness’, ‘truthfulness’ and ‘factual accuracy’ – do not exhaust the epistemological claims of journalism. Tabloid and populist forms of
journalism for example, underwrite their particular claims ‘to know’ and the
‘truthfulness’ of their news stories by a more subjective epistemology.
(2007:11).
Many types of journalism are excluded from this kind of analysis, not only journalism from other mediums such as tabloid or popular forms, but also journalism that operates within lifestyle sections of major news organisations.
This omission becomes increasingly glaring as newspapers turn to entertainment and lifestyle content to gain readers. As McNair observes, ‘the growth of the weekend newspaper supplement in the late twentieth century, the intense journalistic interest in lifestyle and leisure, all reflect the increased dedication to entertainment of all news media’ (2006:38). This dedication has begun to blur the boundaries between news and features and subjectivity and objectivity, making academic study of revenue driven journalism more important. This entails looking at journalists who may be at the centre of their occupational group working in major news organisations, but on the margins of a professional identity organised around a concentration on ‘news’ and objectivity. As Mark Deuze has pointed out in his work on tabloid journalists in the Netherlands, such journalists may ‘deviate from what the current consensus about what good or real journalism is’ (Deuze, 2005b:862) as defined both in the profession and the academy. However, the study of such journalists offers unique insights ‘into how journalism organizes and defines itself, how this process of definition is
structured, and how, in turn this influences how journalism functions’ (862).
The adoption of objectivity as journalism’s defining operating principle has particular effects on women working within the profession. Journalists are still more likely to be men, as Weaver’s 2005 research drawing on surveys of the US and twenty other countries illustrates. He found that ‘men were more typical than women in newsrooms in all nineteen countries or territories reporting gender proportions’ and that the average proportion of women journalists was one third (2005:47). These proportions still leave men as the norm in journalism and the figure of the journalist is, in the profession, the popular imagination and
for the most part the academy, a man. Of the 30% of women working within journalism the majority are concentrated in sectors considered to be soft news this often means ‘human interest stories, features and the delivery of a magazine style journalism’ (Chambers at al, 2004:1).
Demands for objectivity and neutrality necessarily demand that the figure of the journalist himself is absent or erased his own viewpoint and existence absent from his copy. This goal, though clearly untenable, is best represented by newspaper’s habit of leaving stories without a by‐line, which continued well into the last century, the journalist remains nameless a disembodied voice speaking for the institution16. As Steiner observes in her study of women’s experiences in the newsroom, this ‘demand for disembodied objectivity immediately butted up against the notion that women are inherently embodied’ (Steiner, 1998:147). As I have outlined women’s associations with life’s necessities and particularities makes it difficult for them to cast off the body and all its inconvenient
specificities and inhabit the universal figure of the individual. The same forces that structure women’s exclusion from the theoretical ideal public sphere impede their ability to meet journalism’s professional ideals for as Steiner points out journalism ‘is itself a particularly public form and public forum, even more so when its cornerstone is objectivity’ (1998:147).
This exclusion from the public sphere and association with the private sphere and the body has meant that women journalists have been concentrated in very specific areas of the profession. For, as I outlined in Chapter One,
women’s entry into the newspaper came under the auspices of consumption and these origins have dogged their progress in the profession ever since. Despite the feminization of newspapers and the significant inroads that women have made into the prestigious news and foreign areas of the genre, women remain
associated with consumption as Chambers et al. note ‘many of the changes in news values have been prompted by commercial imperatives and, as such,
16 The Times did not introduce regular by‐lines until January 1967 before this point stories were merely attributed to a Times reporter
women continue to be typecast by being assigned fashion, lifestyle and education and health issues’ (Chambers et al., 2004:11).
Associations with consumption and advertising mean women are often found in areas of the paper that conform to Tunstall’s revenue goal. Indeed fashion journalism, along with motoring, was his exemplar of this goal. Tunstall defined the predominant goal of the field of fashion to be attracting advertising.
Tunstall saw the work of journalists within advertising goal fields as ‘easy’
information and pictures were readily provided and foreign travel was a perk of the job. The close relationship with advertising and public relations facilitated the work of newsgathering, meaning stories were often provided rather than sought out, indeed ‘fashion (where PR is heavily developed) is the field where more calls are received than made’ (1971:152). The nature of the work meant that the revelation and exclusives that were important in other fields were not relevant ‘most correspondents agreed that exclusives were either virtually unknown or rather trivial’ (209). Over 30 years later Marchetti came to similar conclusions in his study of specialist journalists. He found that general news reporters often stigmatised specialists as ‘having been captured by their sources’
they were usually portrayed as ‘having a narrow, incomplete vision, too partial and technical, that is to say, more inclined to underline continuity rather than the latest news’ (Marchetti, 2005:67). This stigmatisation is particularly likely in a field such as fashion that is often perceived within the profession as intrinsically silly and trivial. These operating conditions mean that women journalists
working within areas such as fashion and lifestyle are at the boundaries of a professional identity composed around objectivity. They are bound up with commercial and revenue goals and divorced from prestige goals. While these commercial pressures may not be felt as strongly by female journalists working outside fashion, such journalists are often to be found in features or lifestyle sections where emotion, subjectivity and personal experience are at a premium (Coward, 2010), a situation that effectively separates female journalists from the objectivity norm that governs the profession.
This placement at the edges of journalism’s professional identity means that most of the work on news organisations and news production has ignored gender. When it has been considered, the focus has been on ‘counting men and women, identifying positions and mapping employment patterns’ (de Bruin, 2000:225). Scholarship’s definition of journalism through its professional centre has led to a focus on news and women’s encroachment into and influence on its production. The field of fashion and lifestyle and its production has been largely ignored in academic considerations of women’s role in journalism where the emphasis has been on women’s efforts to be taken seriously within prestige categories (Beasley, 2001). Feminist studies of news production are rare and have been keen to avoid reproducing essential categories of ‘maleness’ and
‘femaleness’ by focusing on lifestyle journalism, instead they concentrate on women working within ‘hard’ or foreign news. This has implicitly reproduced the hierarchy that structures both the journalistic profession and mainstream
scholarship, implying that ‘soft’ journalism is not of a high enough status to merit consideration.
This tendency is illustrated by 2004’s book Women in Journalism. The authors draw attention to the fact that foundational journalistic notions ‘of objectivity and impartiality’ were ‘anchored within a partial male oriented construction of knowledge’ (Chambers et al. 2004:7). However, at times they appear to reproduce this paradigm dismissing gossip and fashion as trivial and so not worthy of attention and focusing instead on ‘serious’ news. While it is hard to argue with their disapproval of the ghettoisation of women in certain areas of journalism, there does appear to be a normative framework underpinning their analysis. One is left with the distinct impression that only very particular types of female journalist are worthy of serious consideration. This is encapsulated by the attention they pay to female war reporters, particularly Kate Adie, whom they quote at some length. Such analysis merely serves to entrench the structuring exclusions of the Enlightenment model valorising the public sphere and dismissing and ignoring the concerns of the private. This focus on the most
stereotypically macho of journalistic specialisms risks an implicit acceptance of male news values and hierarchies of importance (Beasley, 2001). What Van Zoonen terms ‘the low social status’ (Van Zoonen, 1998a:132) of popular journalism aimed at women is often reproduced in the assumptions and
priorities to be found in media research even when it is conducted by feminists.
Much of the academic work on newspapers and journalism seems to have accepted the profession’s own self‐definition even while ostensibly questioning its operating norms. As Dahlgren has noted a great deal of scholarship is cast ‘in terms that rhetorically either reproduce the canons of scientific objectivity and/or express explicit compatibility with journalism’s traditional self understanding. This solidarity means that it normally tends to avoid critical confrontation with the fundamental precepts’ (1992:2). The reality of journalistic practice is very different from the normative ideal suggested by much of the scholarship and the profession itself. As Zelizer has pointed out in her
illuminating work, ‘journalism is a world of contradiction and flux, held in place by those with central access and stature while challenged by those on its
margins’ (2005:198). She suggests that the study of journalism is incomplete and not mindful enough of the occupation’s internal contradictions and disparities.
Van Zoonen has also noted these kinds of omissions suggesting that it is part of journalism’s own mythology to bewail the advent of entertainment, consumption and popular culture into newspapers when in fact they have been present from the beginning of the genre. This mythology appears to be largely accepted by the academy, which also regrets the advent of popular culture and consumption into the public sphere. An understandable concern at the potentially homogenising effects of market imperatives, which prioritise satisfying the advertising industry over all other goals, has meant the gendered subtext of many of these trends has been ignored. The reproduction of media industry hierarchies within the
academy means that lifestyle journalism is largely ignored only considered sporadically within the arena of feminist media studies where it seems doomed to meet with only textual analysis.