Confirming the established findings of previous literature and those from Study 1, Table 5 shows the statistically significant correlations between the measures of mental distress and pre-prime psychological processes (LoC, AoT and CFC).
78 Table 5. Descriptive Statistics Table showing the Means (±SD) and Correlations between Measures of Mental Distress and Pre-contemplation Psychological Processes, Study Two (N=298).
Correlation Coefficient significant * p<.05 ** p<.01 (two-tailed) Sample (N=298)
Mean (±SD)
Male (N=63) Mean (±SD)
Female (N=235) Mean (±SD)
2 3 4 5
1 PaDs 22.52(±7.38) 20.83(±7.94) 22.97(±7.17) .53** .38** .36** .17**
2 DASS 34.76(±10.63) 34.13(±9.98) 34.93(±10.81) - .28** .28** .20**
3 LoC 8.62(±1.27) 8.63(±1.42) 8.61(±1.23) - - .18** .24**
4 AoT 5.16(±2.61) 5.37(±2.96) 5.10(±2.50) - - - .14*
5 CFC 14.96(±4.23) 15.90(±4.59) 14.71(±4.10) - - - -
79 2.4.5 Contemplation and Image Type Effects
Table 6 shows the means (±SD) for the most and least desirable residential images for pre- and post-contemplation LoC, AoT and CFC. Paired samples t-tests demonstrated that all psychological processes (LoC, AoT and CFC) significantly altered following the contemplation of both types of residential images. In short, after contemplating the photographs, participants reported feeling significantly less in control of their lives, anticipating significantly more threat in the near future and reported considering the future significantly less ( LoC: t (297) = -7.26, p<.001, tailed; AoT: t (297) = -22.21, p<.001, two-tailed. CFC: t (297) = -6.66, p<.001, two-tailed).
Analyses of the mean difference scores demonstrated that the contemplation of the least desirable residential neighbourhoods did not significantly
augment LoC more than the contemplation of the more desirable residential neighbourhoods, (most desirable, M = .45, SD = 1.26; least desirable, M = .66, SD = 1.39), t (296) = -1.40, p = .164, d = .16 (two-tailed). Furthermore, the least desirable residential neighbourhoods did not significantly augment CFC more than the most desirable residential neighbourhoods, (most
desirable, M = 1.35, SD = 3.61; least desirable, M = 1.41, SD = 3.56), t (296)
= -.15, p = .885, d = .02 (two-tailed). However, the least desirable residential neighbourhoods did cause significantly greater change between pre-and post-contemplation AoT scores compared with the most desirable residential neighbourhoods, (most desirable, M = 4.36, SD = 3.73; least desirable, M = 5.35, SD = 3.80), t (296) = -2.26, p = .024, d = .26 (two-tailed). Due to non-significant changes in LoC and CFC, regression analysis exploring the
80
*
effects of mental distress and image type on mean difference scores was limited to AoT.
Figure 6 shows the mean difference scores between pre-and post-contemplation for both the most and least desirable residential neighbourhoods for LoC, AoT and CFC.
Figure 6. Clustered Bar Graph to show Mean Difference Scores Pre- and Post-Image Contemplation for the Most and Least Desirable Residential Neighbourhoods for all three Psychological Processes (LoC, AoT and CFC), Study Two (N=298).
81 Table 6. Descriptive Statistics showing Means (±SD) for the Most and Least Desirable Residential Neighbourhoods for Pre- and Post-contemplation Psychological Processes (LoC, AoT and CFC), Study Two (N=298).
LoC AoT CFC
Sample (N=298) Pre-contemplation
Post-contemplation
8.62(±1.27)
9.18(±1.35)
5.16(±2.61)
10.04(±3.95)
14.96(±4.23)
16.34(±3.33)
Most Desirable (N=162)
Pre-contemplation 8.56(±1.30) 4.99(±2.62) 14.31(±4.34)
Post-contemplation 9.01(±1.34) 9.35(±4.24) 15.66(±3.44)
Least Desirable (N= 155)
Pre-contemplation 8.67(±1.25) 5.31(±2.59) 15.54(±4.05)
Post-contemplation 9.33(±1.35) 10.66(±3.56) 16.95(±3.11)
82 2.4.6 Mental Distress and Image Type Effects
A hierarchical regression explored the extent to which the relative change in AoT post-contemplation was predicted by participant’s underlying levels of depression/anxiety, paranoid ideation and image type (most/least desirable neighbourhoods). A hierarchical regression was conducted with step 1 of the model controlling for participant’s gender and pre-contemplation AoT scores.
Step 2 added measures of mental distress (PaDs and DASS), and finally, step 3 of the model added image type (most/least desirable residential
neighbourhoods), the dependent variable was post-contemplation AoT score.
The overall regression model predicted approximately 30% of variance in post-contemplation AoT scores, R2 = .30, F (5, 292) = 25.56, p<.001. Gender and pre-contemplation AoT scores predicted approximately 16% of variance in post-contemplation AoT scores. After controlling for gender and pre-contemplation AoT score, PaDs and DASS scores predicted approximately 14% of variance in post-contemplation AoT. Finally, after controlling for gender, pre-contemplation AoT and measures of mental distress, image type (most/least desirable residential neighbourhoods) predicted approximately 1% of variance of post-contemplation AoT. See Table 7 for full hierarchical regression.
83 Table 7: Hierarchical Regression Analysis showing Gender, Pre-contemplation AoT, PaDs, DASS and Image Type (Most/Least Desirable) as Predictors of Post-contemplation AoT, Study Two (N=298).
Variable Cumulative Simultaneous
R2-change F-change Β p
Step 1
Gender (M/F) .16 F (2,295) = 27.84** -.03 .523
Pre-contemplation AoT .24 <.001
Step 2
PaDs .14 F (2,293) = 28.29** .32 <.001
DASS .12 .042
Step 3
Image Type (Most/Least Desirable) .01 F (1,292) = 3.96* .10 .047
*p<.05, **p<.001
84 2.4.7 Study 2 Summary
This study aimed to explore whether very brief exposure and contemplation of residential neighbourhoods perceived to be less desirable was enough to produce changes in self-reported psychological processes that underpin mental health and wellbeing (LoC, AoT and CFC). Results found that all psychological processes changed significantly after contemplation of both the most and least desirable residential images, such that participants felt significantly less in control of their lives (locus of control became more external), anticipated significantly more threat and considered the future significantly less. When comparing pre-post-contemplation difference scores between the urban and rural residential images, no significant differences were found for LoC and CFC. However, there was a significant difference between the most and least desirable residential neighbourhoods in terms of changes to AoT, such that the least desirable residential images showed significantly more change in AoT between pre-and post-image
contemplation. Furthermore, in a hierarchical regression, image type was found to be a significant predictor of post-contemplation AoT after controlling for gender, pre-contemplation AoT and measures of mental distress. The hypothesis that brief exposure and contemplation of less desirable
residential neighbourhoods would augment changes in psychological processes to a greater extent than the more desirable residential
neighbourhoods was partially supported. Taking the findings of both studies together, we see that depression, anxiety and paranoid ideation are strong predictors of the place contemplation effects. Importantly, perceived
85 desirability of residential neighbourhoods appears to be a better predictor of changes to AoT than perceived urbanity of a place.