4. DESARROLLO DE LA METODOLOGÍA
4.3 EVALUACIÓN DEL DESPERDICIO EN EL SERVICIO DE URGENCIAS
4.3.2 Diagnóstico del Proceso
The impact of human societies on ecosystems and biodiversity has greatly differed in New Zealand from other colonisation events. During each colonisation event, native ecosystems have suffered from a different intensity of habitat alteration and ecosystem transformation caused by the differences in sociocultural niche construction of the settler societies. Thus native avifauna, have suffered from different levels of constraints during the human societies filtering that has led to the extinction and extirpation of some native species, and adaptation by others. Throughout the sociocultural and anthroecological succession of societies established in New Zealand, the advanced agrarian system of European society has displayed a stronger anthropogenic filtering process on native avifauna, via direct (e.g., hunting) and indirect actions (e.g., introductions of exotic predators). Consequently, these two anthroecological successions (i.e., Polynesian and European societies) have created an anthropogenic filter that has resulted in changing selection pressures for native biodiversity.
Consequently, an understanding of societal legacies (e.g., technological innovations, cultural and institutional innovations) across global ecosystems and the frameworks of ecological successions are important for interpreting the current trajectory of ecosystem changes.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful for the Institute of Natural and Mathematical Sciences of Massey University for funding and Anne Wignall, Dianne Brunton and Luis Ortiz-Catedral for useful discussions and comments on this paper. I particularly thank W. Ji and M. G. Anderson for their improvement in the chapter through their edits and suggestions
exhibit an appropriate evolutionary response to cope with the multiple novel stressors caused by the first colonisation event, before a second colonisation event occurred. Consequently, the slow response of native biodiversity to human-induced habitat change may be due to this short period of association with human- induced habitat change and may not have provided enough evolutionary time for species to adapt.
3.5 Conclusion
The impact of human societies on ecosystems and biodiversity has greatly differed in New Zealand from other colonisation events. During each colonisation event, native ecosystems have suffered from a different intensity of habitat alteration and ecosystem transformation caused by the differences in sociocultural niche construction of the settler societies. Thus native avifauna, have suffered from different levels of constraints during the human societies filtering that has led to the extinction and extirpation of some native species, and adaptation by others. Throughout the sociocultural and anthroecological succession of societies established in New Zealand, the advanced agrarian system of European society has displayed a stronger anthropogenic filtering process on native avifauna, via direct (e.g., hunting) and indirect actions (e.g., introductions of exotic predators). Consequently, these two anthroecological successions (i.e., Polynesian and European societies) have created an anthropogenic filter that has resulted in changing selection pressures for native biodiversity.
Consequently, an understanding of societal legacies (e.g., technological innovations, cultural and institutional innovations) across global ecosystems and the frameworks of ecological successions are important for interpreting the current trajectory of ecosystem changes.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful for the Institute of Natural and Mathematical Sciences of Massey University for funding and Anne Wignall, Dianne Brunton and Luis Ortiz-Catedral for useful discussions and comments on this paper. I particularly thank W. Ji and M. G. Anderson for their improvement in the chapter through their edits and suggestions
Supplementary forms
Suppl. 2: Societal classification of New Zealand settlers by, the chronosequence of historical colonisation. To understand the basic pattern of each societal types of New Zealand settlers, data for each sociocultural system at their arrival were extracted from Hargreaves 1963, McGlone 1983, Stevens et al. 1988, Mc Wethy et al. 2010, Anderson 1991 and summarised in a table based on Nolan and Lenski 2010 and Ellis 2015.
Subsistence regime Technological innovation Introduction species
Polynesian
Domestication (dogs, chicken)
Pastoralism
Watercraft and walked track
Basic maritime culture
European
Literacy
Road network, waterways Flora : up to 26000 species
Expansion trade and empire Hunting tools : traps, firearms Strong maritime culture Settler
society Sociocultural system Cultural and institutional innovation
Simple horticultural
Forest clearance for hunting, travelling, security, dwelling
Land ownership at different level, tribe (iwi), clan (hapū), family group (whānau)=> communal enterprise
Fauna : Mammals: 2 species (kiore and dogs), insect (fleas, lice)
Permanent horticulture (kūmara, taro, potatoes, maize)
Horticulture innovation : plot
rotation, tillage Trade with travel within tribal district and between districts (stones and foods)
Flora : few plants (kumara, taro, maize, tī, Karaka)
Wooden or stone tools (adzes, hoe, chisels, fishhooks, harpoon points)
Wooden dwelling, village, fortification and security Hunting megafauna
(moa, seals....) Oral culture transmission, wood and stone carving
Advanced Agrarian
Subsistence and commercial agriculture (self-sufficient farmer )
Iron tools, animal traction,
biological control Fauna : Mammals 48 (4) species; Marsupial 12 species; Birds 130 species , Fish 33 species, insects Subsistence and
commercial hunting (whaler, sealer...)
Transport (horse bus, coach services, bullock carts...) Agriculture innovation :
irrigation, fertilizer, shifting cultivation, plough Communication : electric telegraph
Supplementary forms
Suppl. 2: Societal classification of New Zealand settlers by, the chronosequence of historical colonisation. To understand the basic pattern of each societal types of New Zealand settlers, data for each sociocultural system at their arrival were extracted from Hargreaves 1963, McGlone 1983, Stevens et al. 1988, Mc Wethy et al. 2010, Anderson 1991 and summarised in a table based on Nolan and Lenski 2010 and Ellis 2015.
Subsistence regime Technological innovation Introduction species
Polynesian
Domestication (dogs, chicken)
Pastoralism
Watercraft and walked track
Basic maritime culture
European
Literacy
Road network, waterways Flora : up to 26000 species
Expansion trade and empire Hunting tools : traps, firearms Strong maritime culture Settler
society Sociocultural system Cultural and institutional innovation
Simple horticultural
Forest clearance for hunting, travelling, security, dwelling
Land ownership at different level, tribe (iwi), clan (hapū), family group (whānau)=> communal enterprise
Fauna : Mammals: 2 species (kiore and dogs), insect (fleas, lice)
Permanent horticulture (kūmara, taro, potatoes, maize)
Horticulture innovation : plot
rotation, tillage Trade with travel within tribal district and between districts (stones and foods)
Flora : few plants (kumara, taro, maize, tī, Karaka)
Wooden or stone tools (adzes, hoe, chisels, fishhooks, harpoon points)
Wooden dwelling, village, fortification and security Hunting megafauna
(moa, seals....) Oral culture transmission, wood and stone carving
Advanced Agrarian
Subsistence and commercial agriculture (self-sufficient farmer )
Iron tools, animal traction,
biological control Fauna : Mammals 48 (4) species; Marsupial 12 species; Birds 130 species , Fish 33 species, insects Subsistence and
commercial hunting (whaler, sealer...)
Transport (horse bus, coach services, bullock carts...) Agriculture innovation :
irrigation, fertilizer, shifting cultivation, plough Communication : electric telegraph
References:
Anderson A (1991) The chronology of colonisation of New Zealand. Antiquity, 65(249), 767-95. Ellis EC (2015) Ecology in an Anthropogenic Biosphere. Ecological Monograph,85(3), 287-331.
Hargreaves RP (1963) Changing Maori agriculture in pre-Waitangi New Zealand. Journal of the Polynesian Society, 72(2), 101-117. McGlone MS (1983) Polynesian deforestation of New Zealand: a preliminary synthesis. Archaeology in Oceania, 18(1), 11-25. Stevens G, McGlone MS, McCulloch B (1988) Prehistoric New Zealand. Heinemann Reed, Auckland, NZ.
Mc Wethy DB, Whitlock C, Wilmshurst JM, McGlone MS, Fromont M, Li X, Dieffenbacher-Krall A, Hobbs WO, Fritz SC, Cook ER (2010) Rapid landscape transformation in South Island, New Zealand, following initial Polynesian settlement. Proceeding of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America, 107(50), 21343-21348.
Nolan P, Lenski GE (2010) Human societies: an introduction to macrosociology (Eleventh edition. Paradigm, Boulder, Colorado, USA). References:
Anderson A (1991) The chronology of colonisation of New Zealand. Antiquity, 65(249), 767-95. Ellis EC (2015) Ecology in an Anthropogenic Biosphere. Ecological Monograph,85(3), 287-331.
Hargreaves RP (1963) Changing Maori agriculture in pre-Waitangi New Zealand. Journal of the Polynesian Society, 72(2), 101-117. McGlone MS (1983) Polynesian deforestation of New Zealand: a preliminary synthesis. Archaeology in Oceania, 18(1), 11-25. Stevens G, McGlone MS, McCulloch B (1988) Prehistoric New Zealand. Heinemann Reed, Auckland, NZ.
Mc Wethy DB, Whitlock C, Wilmshurst JM, McGlone MS, Fromont M, Li X, Dieffenbacher-Krall A, Hobbs WO, Fritz SC, Cook ER (2010) Rapid landscape transformation in South Island, New Zealand, following initial Polynesian settlement. Proceeding of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America, 107(50), 21343-21348.
Suppl. 3: List of native avifauna species in New Zealand North Island for the three main time period (prehuman, Pre European and current) and in Auckland area for the two major period (Pre-European and current) and their conservation status.
Conservation status is based on the New Zealand threat classification system (Robertson et al. 2012) and are D Declining, R Recovering, Re Relict, Nu Naturally Uncommon, E Extinct, NV Nationally Vulnerable, NE Nationally Endangered, NC Nationally Critical, NT Not Threatened. * Self- introduction
Suppl. 3: List of native avifauna species in New Zealand North Island for the three main time period (prehuman, Pre European and current) and in Auckland area for the two major period (Pre-European and current) and their conservation status.
Conservation status is based on the New Zealand threat classification system (Robertson et al. 2012) and are D Declining, R Recovering, Re Relict, Nu Naturally Uncommon, E Extinct, NV Nationally Vulnerable, NE Nationally Endangered, NC Nationally Critical, NT Not Threatened. * Self- introduction
North Island Auckland area
Common name Scientific name Old scientific name
Current Pre European During European
Current
1870 1873 1980 2005-14
Little bush moa Anomalopteryx didiformis E X
Mappin's moa Pachyornis mappini E X
Coastal moa Euryapteryx curtus E X
Large bush moa Dinornis novaezelandiae E X
North Island brown kiwi Apteryx mantelli NV X X X X X X
Little spotted kiwi Apteryx owenii R X X
Reef heron Egretta sacra NE X X X
White faced heron * Egretta novaehollandiae NT 1940 X X X
Great white egret Ardea modesta Egretta alba NC X X X
New Zealand little bittern Ixobrychus novaezelandiae E X X
Eyle's harrier Circus eylesi E X
Swamp harrier Circus approximans Circus assimilis NT X X X X X X X X
New Zealand falcon Falco novaeseelandiae Hieracidae novaezelandiae NV X X X X X X
New Zealand quail Couturix novaezelandia E X X X X
North Island adzebill Aptornis otidiformis E X
Banded rail Gallirallus philippensis D X X X X X X X
Weka Gallirallus australis Ocydromus Earli D X X X X X X X X
Snipe rail Capellirallus karamu E X
Spotless crake Porzana tabuensis Re X X X X X X X
March crake Porzana pusilla Re X X X X X X X
Hodgens' waterhen Gallinula hodgenorum E X
North Island takahe Porphyrio mantelli E X X
Pukeko Porphyrio melanotus Porphyrio melanonotus NT X X X X X X X X
New Zealand coot Fulica prisca E X
Variable oystercatcher * Haematopus unicolor R X X X X X X X
Spur-winger plover Vanellus miles NT 1970 X X
South island pied oystercatcherHaematopus finschi D X X X X X X X
Black stilt Himantopus novaezelandiae NC X X X X X X X
New Zealand pigeon Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae Carpophaga novaezelandiae NT X X X X X X X X
Kakapo Strigops habroptilus NC X X
Kaka Nestor meridionalis NV X X X X X X X X
Red-crowned parakeet Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae Platycercus novaezelandia Re X X X X
Yellow-crowned parakeet Cyanoramphus auriceps Platycercus auriceps NT X X X X X X
Orange-fronted parakeet Cynoramphus malherbi NV X X
Morepork Ninox novaeseelandiae Athene novaezelandiae NT X X X X X X X X
Laughing owl Sceloglaux albifacies E X X
Shining cuckoo Chrysococcys lucidus NE X X X X X X X X
Long tailed cuckoo Eudynamys taitensis Eudynamis taitensis NU X X X X X X X X
New Zealand owlet-nightjar Aegotheles novaazaezealandia E X
Kingfisher Todiramphus sanctus Halcyon vagans NT X X X X X X X X
Conservatio n Status date of establishmen t Pre
human EuropeanPre
Between 1939-1945
North Island Auckland area
Common name Scientific name Old scientific name
Current Pre European During European
Current
1870 1873 1980 2005-14
Little bush moa Anomalopteryx didiformis E X
Mappin's moa Pachyornis mappini E X
Coastal moa Euryapteryx curtus E X
Large bush moa Dinornis novaezelandiae E X
North Island brown kiwi Apteryx mantelli NV X X X X X X
Little spotted kiwi Apteryx owenii R X X
Reef heron Egretta sacra NE X X X
White faced heron * Egretta novaehollandiae NT 1940 X X X
Great white egret Ardea modesta Egretta alba NC X X X
New Zealand little bittern Ixobrychus novaezelandiae E X X
Eyle's harrier Circus eylesi E X
Swamp harrier Circus approximans Circus assimilis NT X X X X X X X X
New Zealand falcon Falco novaeseelandiae Hieracidae novaezelandiae NV X X X X X X
New Zealand quail Couturix novaezelandia E X X X X
North Island adzebill Aptornis otidiformis E X
Banded rail Gallirallus philippensis D X X X X X X X
Weka Gallirallus australis Ocydromus Earli D X X X X X X X X
Snipe rail Capellirallus karamu E X
Spotless crake Porzana tabuensis Re X X X X X X X
March crake Porzana pusilla Re X X X X X X X
Hodgens' waterhen Gallinula hodgenorum E X
North Island takahe Porphyrio mantelli E X X
Pukeko Porphyrio melanotus Porphyrio melanonotus NT X X X X X X X X
New Zealand coot Fulica prisca E X
Variable oystercatcher * Haematopus unicolor R X X X X X X X
Spur-winger plover Vanellus miles NT 1970 X X
South island pied oystercatcherHaematopus finschi D X X X X X X X
Black stilt Himantopus novaezelandiae NC X X X X X X X
New Zealand pigeon Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae Carpophaga novaezelandiae NT X X X X X X X X
Kakapo Strigops habroptilus NC X X
Kaka Nestor meridionalis NV X X X X X X X X
Red-crowned parakeet Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae Platycercus novaezelandia Re X X X X
Yellow-crowned parakeet Cyanoramphus auriceps Platycercus auriceps NT X X X X X X
Orange-fronted parakeet Cynoramphus malherbi NV X X
Morepork Ninox novaeseelandiae Athene novaezelandiae NT X X X X X X X X
Laughing owl Sceloglaux albifacies E X X
Shining cuckoo Chrysococcys lucidus NE X X X X X X X X
Long tailed cuckoo Eudynamys taitensis Eudynamis taitensis NU X X X X X X X X
New Zealand owlet-nightjar Aegotheles novaazaezealandia E X
Kingfisher Todiramphus sanctus Halcyon vagans NT X X X X X X X X
Conservatio n Status date of establishmen t Pre
human EuropeanPre
Between 1939-1945
References:
Anonymous (1940) Summarised classified notes. Reports and Bulletins, 2(1), 37-53. Anonymous (1942) Summarised classified notes. Reports and Bulletins, 3(3), 80-98. Anonymous (1943) Summarised classified notes. Notornis, 1(3), 17-32.
Anonymous (1944) Summarised classified notes. Notornis, 1(7), 66-84.
Rifleman Acanthistta chloris D X X X
Bush wren Xenicus longipes E X X
Rock wren Xenicus gilviventris NE X X X
Stout-legged wren Pachyplichas jagmi E X
New Zealand pipit Anthus novaeseeandiae D X X X X X X X X
New Zealand fernbird Bowdleria punctata D X X X X X X X X
Whitehead Mohoua albicilla NT X X X X X
Grey warbler Gerygone igata Gerygone flaviventris NT X X X X X X X X
New Zealand fantail Rhipidura fuliginosa Rhipidura flabellifera NT X X X X X X X X
Tomtit Petroica macrocephala Petraeca toitoi NT X X X X X X X X
North Island robin Petroica longipes Petraeca longipes NT X X X X X
Silvereye * Zosterops lateralis Zosterops dorsals NT 1850 X X X X X X
Stitchbird Notiomystis cincta NV X X X
New Zealand bellbird Anthorrnis melanura NT X X X X X
Tui Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae Prosthemadera novaezelandia NT X X X X X X X X
North Island kokako Callaeas wilsoni Callaeas cinera R X X X X X X X X
North Island saddleback Philesturnus carunculatus Creadion carunculatus R X X X
Huia Heteralocha acutirostris E X X
North island piopio Turnagra tanagra E X X
Welcome swallow * Hirundo noexena NT 1950 X X X
New Zealand raven Corvus antipodum E X
57 45 31 33 32 24 24 23
number of species
References:
Anonymous (1940) Summarised classified notes. Reports and Bulletins, 2(1), 37-53. Anonymous (1942) Summarised classified notes. Reports and Bulletins, 3(3), 80-98. Anonymous (1943) Summarised classified notes. Notornis, 1(3), 17-32.
Anonymous (1944) Summarised classified notes. Notornis, 1(7), 66-84.
Rifleman Acanthistta chloris D X X X
Bush wren Xenicus longipes E X X
Rock wren Xenicus gilviventris NE X X X
Stout-legged wren Pachyplichas jagmi E X
New Zealand pipit Anthus novaeseeandiae D X X X X X X X X
New Zealand fernbird Bowdleria punctata D X X X X X X X X
Whitehead Mohoua albicilla NT X X X X X
Grey warbler Gerygone igata Gerygone flaviventris NT X X X X X X X X
New Zealand fantail Rhipidura fuliginosa Rhipidura flabellifera NT X X X X X X X X
Tomtit Petroica macrocephala Petraeca toitoi NT X X X X X X X X
North Island robin Petroica longipes Petraeca longipes NT X X X X X
Silvereye * Zosterops lateralis Zosterops dorsals NT 1850 X X X X X X
Stitchbird Notiomystis cincta NV X X X
New Zealand bellbird Anthorrnis melanura NT X X X X X
Tui Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae Prosthemadera novaezelandia NT X X X X X X X X
North Island kokako Callaeas wilsoni Callaeas cinera R X X X X X X X X
North Island saddleback Philesturnus carunculatus Creadion carunculatus R X X X
Huia Heteralocha acutirostris E X X
North island piopio Turnagra tanagra E X X
Welcome swallow * Hirundo noexena NT 1950 X X X
New Zealand raven Corvus antipodum E X
57 45 31 33 32 24 24 23
number of species
Anonymous (1946) Summarised classified notes. Notornis, 1(11), 121-139.
Bull PC, Gaze PD, Robertson CJR (1985) The atlas of bird distribution in New Zealand. (The Ornithological Society of New Zealand. Inc., Wellington, New Zealand), 1-296.
Buller WL (1872–1873) A history of the birds of New Zealand (-1st ed. John van Voorst, London).
Buller WL (1877) Further notes on the ornithology of New Zealand. Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New Zealand,10, 201-209. Holdaway RN, Worthy TH, Tennyson AJ (2001) A working list of breeding bird species of the New Zealand region at first human contact. New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 28(2), 119-187.
Hutton FW (1870) Notes on some of the Birds inhabiting the Province of Auckland, New Zealand. Ibis, 12(3), 392-398. Lovegrove T (1980) Birds of Auckland (Wilson and Horton, New Zealand), 1-128.
Miskelly CM, et al. (2008) Conservation status of New Zealand bird, 2008. Notornis, 55(3), 117-135. New Zealand Birds online (2013). Available at http://nzbirdsonline.org.nz [Accessed 15 Jun. 2016]
Robertson CJR, et al. (2007) Atlas of bird distribution in New Zealand 1999–2004. (The Ornithological Society of New Zealand. Inc., Wellington, New Zealand), 1-533.
Anonymous (1946) Summarised classified notes. Notornis, 1(11), 121-139.
Bull PC, Gaze PD, Robertson CJR (1985) The atlas of bird distribution in New Zealand. (The Ornithological Society of New Zealand. Inc., Wellington, New Zealand), 1-296.
Buller WL (1872–1873) A history of the birds of New Zealand (-1st ed. John van Voorst, London).
Buller WL (1877) Further notes on the ornithology of New Zealand. Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New Zealand,10, 201-209. Holdaway RN, Worthy TH, Tennyson AJ (2001) A working list of breeding bird species of the New Zealand region at first human contact. New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 28(2), 119-187.
Hutton FW (1870) Notes on some of the Birds inhabiting the Province of Auckland, New Zealand. Ibis, 12(3), 392-398. Lovegrove T (1980) Birds of Auckland (Wilson and Horton, New Zealand), 1-128.
Miskelly CM, et al. (2008) Conservation status of New Zealand bird, 2008. Notornis, 55(3), 117-135. New Zealand Birds online (2013). Available at http://nzbirdsonline.org.nz [Accessed 15 Jun. 2016]
Robertson CJR, et al. (2007) Atlas of bird distribution in New Zealand 1999–2004. (The Ornithological Society of New Zealand. Inc., Wellington, New Zealand), 1-533.
Suppl. 4: Introduced mammalian predator species (Order Carnivora), following human colonisation of New Zealand.
References:
Drummond J (1906) On introduced Birds. Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New Zealand, 39, 227-252. Kazimierz W (1984) Introduced Birds and Mammals in New Zealand and their effect on the environment. Tuatara, 27(2), 78-102. Thomson GM (1922) The naturalization of animals and plants in New Zealand. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge, USA), 1- 632.
Colonizing Society Family Common NameSpecies introduced Species Name
Polynesian Society Canidae Dog Canis lupis Utility Successful
Muridae Kiore Rattus exulans Utility Successful
European Society
Felidae Cat Felix catus Escapees Successful
Muridae Black rat Rattus rattus Stowaway Successful
Norway rat Rattus norvegicus Stowaway Successful
Mouse Mus musculus Stowaway Successful
Mustelidae Ferret Mustela putorius Biological control Successful Stoat Mustela erminea Biological control Successful Weasel Mustela nivalis Biological control Successful
Sciuridae Chipmunk Tamias striatus Stowaway Unsuccessful
Brown Californian squirrel Otospermophilus beecheyi Stowaway Unsuccessful Reasons of their
introduction Introduction attempt
Suppl. 4: Introduced mammalian predator species (Order Carnivora), following human colonisation of New Zealand.
References:
Drummond J (1906) On introduced Birds. Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New Zealand, 39, 227-252. Kazimierz W (1984) Introduced Birds and Mammals in New Zealand and their effect on the environment. Tuatara, 27(2), 78-102. Thomson GM (1922) The naturalization of animals and plants in New Zealand. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge, USA), 1- 632.
Colonizing Society Family Common NameSpecies introduced Species Name
Polynesian Society Canidae Dog Canis lupis Utility Successful
Muridae Kiore Rattus exulans Utility Successful
European Society
Felidae Cat Felix catus Escapees Successful
Muridae Black rat Rattus rattus Stowaway Successful