CAPITULO IV: PRESENTACIÓN Y ANÁLISIS DE RESULTADOS
3.2.2. Diferenciarse del otro: trabajo e ingresos económicos
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PART!FOUR!!
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INTEGRATING!THE!MACRO!AND!MICRO:!
THE!POLITICAL!ECONOMY!OF!ETHIOPIAN!SOCIAL!POLICY!
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9!
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Change!and!continuity!in!Ethiopian!agriculture:!!
The!implications!for!social!policy!and!development!
!
#
This#chapter#draws#on#the#case#study#findings#presented#in#part#three#to#address#the#second#
research#question,#namely:#how%are%social%policy%discourses%reflected%in%policy%implementation%and%
what%impact%do%these%policies%have%on%different%types%of%people?%%In#particular,#the#chapter#
assesses#the#implications#of#the#micro,level#case#studies#for#the#government’s#social#policy#and#
development#strategies.#To#that#end,#the#chapter#relates#the#mechanisms#operating#in#these#
micro,level#case#studies#to#the#macro,level#processes#discussed#in#chapter#five.#In#order#to#do#so,#I#
draw#on#the#full#set#of#cases#from#the#Ethiopian#Rural#Household#Survey#(ERHS),#as#well#as#
nationally#representative#data#on#land#and#population#from#the#Central#Statistical#Agency#(CSA).#
Following#this#introduction,#the#next#section#examines#the#spatial#pattern#of#agricultural#
investment,#deconstructing#the#‘marginal#lands’#narrative#used#to#justify#land#leases#and#
examining#the#implications#of#agricultural#investment#for#social#policy.#The#following#section#
focuses#on#the#smallholder#sector#and#the#objectives#of#Agricultural#Development,Led#
Industrialisation#(ADLI)#and#the#land#policy#to#combine#productive,#protective#and#egalitarian#
social#policy#objectives.#The#final#section#concludes.#
!
Agricultural!investment!and!stateRmediated!agrarian!transformation!
As#discussed#in#chapter#five,#the#government#has#promoted#agricultural#investment#as#part#of#
wider#push#for#commercialisation,#including#foreign#and#domestic,#public#and#private#investors.#
Nevertheless,#this#process#of#transformation#has#not#been#uniform#across#the#country.#Indeed,#
government#policy#under#the#Ethiopian#Peoples’#Revolutionary#Democratic#Front#(EPRDF)#and#
past#administrations#has#given#rise#to#four#broad#categories#of#land,#each#of#which#has#been#
affected#differently#by#recent#commercialisation#pressures.#First,#by#far#the#majority#of#land#
suitable#for#crop#production#in#the#highlands#is#farmed#by#smallholders.#Second,#there#remain#a#
few#hectares#of#communal#land#used#for#grazing#or#firewood#collection#within#each#highland#
village.#Third,#primarily#in#highland#areas,#there#are#a#number#of#state#farms#established#by#the#
Derg#but#retained#by#the#EPRDF.#The#final#category,#from#the#perspective#of#the#state,#constitutes#
161#
#
the#majority#of#the#lowlands,#comprising#a#great#variety#of#pastoral#and#agro,pastoral#lands,#land#
used#for#shifting#cultivation#and#forests.##
The!previous!use!of!investment!land!
Although#government#data#do#not#contain#information#on#the#prior#use#of#investment#land,#in#
Ethiopia#variations#in#land#use#broadly#overlap#with#population#density.#For#example,#rural#
highland#areas#with#high#population#density#are#almost#always#in#smallholder,dominated#areas,#
while#low#population#densities#in#lowland#border#areas#signal#pasture,#areas#used#by#shifting#
cultivators#and#forests#(see#map#9.1).#Consequently,#important#insights#into#the#types#of#land#
leased#to#investors#can#be#obtained#by#comparing#investment#locations#with#population#density.##
Map#9.2#shows#the#locations#of#land#already#leased#to#investors,#where#data#are#available.#
Comparison#with#map#9.1#reveals#that#the#vast#majority#of#investment#land#is#located#in#sparsely, populated,#lowland#border#regions,#including:#West#Tigray,#North#Gondar,#Gambella,#South#Omo#
and#Bale.#Furthermore,#to#promote#investment,#the#federal#government#has#instructed#regions#to#
identify#‘banks’#of#land#suitable#for#investment#projects#and#claims#to#have#identified#3.7#million#
hectares#so#far,#all#of#which#is#currently#‘unused’#(discussed#below).#Map#9.3#presents#the#location#
of#this#land#for#all#regions#except#Oromiya#and#Somali,#for#which#sub,regional#breakdowns#are#
unavailable.#It#shows#a#similar#pattern,#with#all#the#main#targets#for#investment#situated#in#
lowland#areas—nearly#2#million#hectares#in#Gambella#and#Benishangul,Gumuz,#400,000#hectares#
in#Afar,#as#well#as#substantial#amounts#in#northwest#Amhara#and#South#Omo.#Many#of#these#
investment#hotspots#are#near#major#rivers,#including#the#Awash#in#eastern#Oromiya#and#Afar,#the#
Omo#in#Southern#Nations,#Nationalities#and#Peoples’#Region#(SNNPR),#the#Baro#in#Gambella#and#
the#Nile#in#Benishangul,Gumuz.#Indeed,#state#resources#are#being#used#to#build#dams,#which#could#
support#large,scale#irrigation,#on#the#Omo#and#the#Nile.#
As#well#as#identifying#‘available’#land#in#the#lowlands,#the#government#provides#investors#with#
incentives#to#establish#projects#in#remote#areas.#For#example,#projects#in#Gambella,#Benishangul#
and#South#Omo#are#eligible#for#a#tax#holiday#on#top#of#those#used#to#encourage#export,oriented#
investments#(FDRE#2003,#para.#4).#Areas#not#previously#under#cultivation#are#prioritised#by#
exempting#investors#from#land#use#fees#for#up#to#five#years#if#they#use#improved#seeds#and#
irrigation#(ONRG#2001,#para.#2).#After#these#holidays#expire,#land#fees#are#set#to#encourage#
investment#in#target#areas.#For#example,#remote#land#in#Tigray#is#leased#for#40#birr#per#hectare#per#
year#compared#to#100#birr#for#more#accessible#land#(TNRG#2000#(Ethiopian#Calendar#,#EC)),#while#
in#SNNPR,#prices#range#from#30#to#117#birr#per#hectare#(SNNPR#Investment#Agency#2008).#
162#
#
Map!9.1.!Population!density!(people!per!sq.!km)!by!wereda!
Sources: CSA, UNOCHA
Map!9.2.!Land!leased!to!investors!(000s!ha)!by!wereda!
Sources: Own calculations based on CSA, Amhara Investment Agency, EIA, MoARD (2011), SNNPR Investment Promotion Agency.
Note: Data for Oromiya do not distinguish between pre-implementation and active projects. Data for Tigray are only reported by zone, so totals have been equally divided between the relevant wereda.
<10 11-29 30-49 50-99 100-199 200-299 300+#
No data
<0.1 0.1 – 0.9
1 – 9
#
10 – 49
#
50 – 99
#100 - 199
# 200+#
No data
#
West Tigray
North Gondar
Gambella
South Omo Bale
163#
#
Map!9.3.!Land!identified!for!investment!(000s!ha)!by!wereda!
Sources: Own calculations based on CSA, AISD / MoARD, Amhara Investment Agency, Oromiya Investment Commission, Tigray EPLAUA.
Note: Data for Asosa zone, Benishangul-Gumuz ar only reported by zone, so the total has been equally divided between the relevant wereda.
Table!9.1.!The!regional!distribution!of!investment!land!
##
Foreign#investments#
in#active#projects#
(ha)#
Identified#for#
future#investment#
(ha)#
Land#identified#for#
investment#as#
percentage#of#total#area#
Addis#Ababa# 171# 0# ,#
Afar# 10,000# 409,678# 6#
Amhara# 20,702# 347,430# 2#
Benishangul,Gumuz## 83,931# 691,984# 14#
Dire#Dawa# 0# 0# ,#
Gambella# 202,012# 1,238,005# 42#
Multiregional# 45,017# ,# N/A#
Oromiya# 214,003# 438,212# 2#
SNNPR# 79,770# 529,181# 5#
Somali# 0# N/A# N/A#
Tigray# 300# 0# 0#
Total% 655,907% 3,654,491% 5%
Sources:#Own#calculations#based#on#AISD/MoARD,#Amhara#BoEPLAU,#CSA,#EIA,#MoARD#(2011),#Oromiya#Investment#
Commission,#SNNPR#Investment#Agency#(2008),#Tigray#EPLAUA.#
<0.1 0.1 – 0.9
1 – 9 10 – 49 50 – 99 100 - 199
200+#
No data
Benishangul-Gumuz
East & West Gojjam
Afar
164#
#
Table#9.1#presents#the#distribution#of#investment#land#by#ethnic#region.#Data#on#active#projects#
reflect#leases#that#were#negotiated#by#regional#governments#before#the#creation#of#the#federal#
Agricultural#Investment#Support#Directorate#(AISD#–#see#chapter#five).#Land#identified#for#future#
investment#is#now#managed#by#the#AISD#on#behalf#of#emerging#regions,#while#the#established#
regions#continue#to#allocate#land#to#investors.#The#data#show#that#the#main#sites#of#active#projects#
are#Gambella,#Oromiya,#Benishangul,Gumuz#and#SNNPR,#while#Gambella#and#Benishangul,Gumuz#
are#the#main#locations#of#land#for#future#investment.#As#relatively#small#regions,#the#land#
identified#for#future#investment#constitutes#42#per#cent#of#the#surface#area#of#Gambella#and#14#
per#cent#of#Benishangul,Gumuz.#Although#Amhara,#Oromiya#and#Tigray#have#all#leased#land#or#
identified#land#for#future#investment,#for#the#time#being#these#processes#have#been#conducted#in#
a#far#more#selective#manner,#with#investment#land#constituting#a#far#smaller#proportion#of#the#
regional#surface#area.#The#significance#of#this#ethno,regional#variation#is#explored#in#chapter#10.#
Deconstructing%‘unused’%land%%
The#government#claims#that#all#land#identified#for#future#investment#and#the#vast#majority#already#
leased#was#previously#‘unused’.#This#land#can#therefore#be#leased#to#investors#to#expand#the#
country’s#total#cultivated#area#without#damaging#existing#production#and#livelihoods.#As#former#
Prime#Minister,#Meles#Zenawi,#stated,#‘We#have#three#million#hectares#of#unutilized#land.#This#
land#is#not#used#by#anybody.#This#land#should#be#developed’#(cited#in#ProKerala#News#2011).#
Nevertheless,#the#categorisation#of#all#this#land#as#‘unused’#is#highly#questionable.#The#labelling#of#
‘unused’#land#is#conducted#from#the#state’s#perspective#(Scott#1998,#Borras#and#Franco#2010).#
‘Unused’#land#may#include#some#land#which#is#objectively#unused#for#any#human#purpose,#as#well#
as#land#used#by#people#for#purposes#which#are#considered#insufficiently#productive#or#are#invisible#
to#the#state.##
Government#officials#and#policy#statements#use#the#terms#‘unutilized’#(Meles,#cited#in#ProKerala#
News#2011),#‘empty’#(respondent#SR4,#see#appendix#B),#‘unsettled’#(MoFED#2002,#p.#53)#and#
‘uncultivated’#(Esayas#Kebede,#head#of#the#AISD,#cited#in#McClure#2009,#and#respondent#OR3)#
interchangeably#to#describe#investment#land.#These#labels#betray#the#construction#of#land#
utilisation#from#the#highland#perspective#of#settled#crop#cultivation,#which,#as#discussed#in#
chapter#four,#views#pastoralism#as#unsustainable.#This#construction#of#‘unused’#land#is#also#
reflected#in#government#land#use#statistics.#According#to#past#studies#cited#by#the#government#to#
minimise#the#significance#of#investment#compared#to#the#agricultural#sector#as#a#whole#(Rice#
2010,#Vidal#2010,#Berhanu#Kebede#2011),#approximately#75#million#hectares#in#Ethiopia#are#
suitable#for#cultivation,#while#only#14#million#hectares#are#currently#cultivated,#leaving#about#60#
million#hectares#‘free’.47#Clearly,#this#identification#of#‘cultivation’#with#‘use’#dismisses#the#
importance#of#other#land#uses.##
The#promotion#of#investment#draws#on#the#government’s#productivist#social#policy#discourse#
which#envisages#a#key#role#for#the#state#in#bringing#together#factors#of#production—land,#labour#
and#capital—in#the#most#effective#combinations.#From#the#government’s#perspective,#pastoralism#
#############################################################
47#I#have#been#unable#to#trace#the#origin#of#these#estimates,#which#do#not#refer#to#specific#sources.#They#
differ#considerably#from#calculations#in#the#World#Bank’s#recent#report#on#agricultural#investment,#which#
suggested#that#less#than#5#million#hectares#of#currently#uncultivated#land#are#suitable#for#cultivation#
(Deininger#and#Byerlee#2010,#p.#110).##
165#
#
is#an#unsustainable#and#inefficient#land#use#compared#to#investors#using#modern#agricultural#
production#techniques.#In#the#words#of#Dr#Aberra#Deresa,#State#Minister#for#Agriculture#and#Rural#
Development,##
‘at%the%end%of%the%day%we%are%not%really%appreciating%pastoralists%remaining%as%they%
are.%We%have%to%improve%their%livelihood%by%creating%job%opportunities.%Pastoralism,%
as%it%is,%is%not%sustainable.%We%want%to%change%the%environment’#(cited#in#Butler#2010).#
Indeed,#a#major#new#government#programme#aims#to#relocate#pastoralists#voluntarily#to#planned#
villages,#and#in#Gambella,#the#objective#is#to#resettle#about#three#quarters#of#the#population#in#
coming#years#(Davison#2011).#As#with#past#resettlement#schemes,#the#government#claims#the#new#
villages#will#improve#access#to#social#services#and#the#Productive#Safety#Net#Programme#(PSNP),#
which#is#being#rolled#out#in#the#emerging#regions.#As#yet#there#are#no#empirical#studies#which#
examine#the#links#between#investment#and#the#resettlement#programme.#Nevertheless,#the#scale#
of#each—42#per#cent#of#the#land#in#Gambella#identified#for#investment#and#approximately#75#per#
cent#of#the#population#relocated—calls#into#question#government#claims#that#resettlement#and#
investment#are#entirely#separate#processes.#
So#what#criteria#have#actually#been#applied#to#identify#‘unused’#land?#While#land#registration#has#
proceeded#rapidly#in#the#highlands,#it#has#not#been#attempted#in#Afar,#Gambella,#Benishangul, Gumuz#or#lowland#parts#of#SNNPR#(Solomon#Abebe#2006,#respondents#SR1,#SR2,#SR3).#This#is#due#
both#to#limited#state#capacity#in#these#areas#and#the#logistical#challenges#of#registering#land#used#
by#pastoralists#or#shifting#cultivators.#Nevertheless,#while#regions#such#as#Gambella#and#
Benishangul,Gumuz,#which#are#among#the#weakest#of#the#regional#administrations,#have#rapidly#
identified#vast#tracts#of#land#which#the#federal#government#confidently#claims#to#be#‘unused’,#
respondents#in#the#Amhara#Bureau#of#Environmental#Protection,#Land#Administration#and#Use#
(BoEPLAU),#widely#recognised#as#the#most#capable,#stated#that#the#rapid#identification#of#large#
amounts#of#suitable#investment#land#was#beyond#their#capacity#(respondent#AR2).#Consequently#
Amhara#annually#identifies#comparatively#small#tracts#of#land#for#investment.#Similarly,#although#
the#Oromiya#Bureau#of#Land#and#Environmental#Protection#identified#a#land#bank#for#investment,#
a#senior#respondent#in#the#department#admitted#that#the#data#were#unreliable#(respondent#OR1).#
Serious#questions#therefore#must#be#raised#regarding#the#criteria#used#to#identify#‘unused’#land.#
In#many#cases#it#is#impossible#to#tell#with#certainty#whether#this#land#is#unused#or#merely#
unregistered.#
In#addition#to#the#land#used#by#pastoralists#and#leased#to#investors#in#Hawi#Gudina,#discussed#in#
chapter#eight,#there#are#numerous#examples#where#the#label#‘unused’#is#contestable.#In#Gambella,#
despite#low#population#density,#land#access#was#the#subject#of#ethnic#conflict#even#prior#to#the#
arrival#of#investors#(Dereje#Feyissa#2005).#Reports#now#suggest#that#local#people#are#unhappy#that#
land#they#previously#used#has#been#leased#to#investors#(Daniel#and#Mittal#2010,#Vidal#2010,#The#
Oakland#Institute#2011b).#In#addition,#a#report#by#the#International#Institute#for#the#Environment#
and#Development#(IIED)#finds#that#the#classification#of#all#investment#land#as#‘wasteland’#is#highly#
questionable#and#claims#that#at#least#some#of#the#land#leased#in#Benishangul,Gumuz#was#
previously#used#for#shifting#cultivation#and#grazing#(Cotula#et%al.#2009).#Finally,#land#allocated#to#
investors#in#West#Tigray#may#be#sparsely,populated#but#the#same#area#has#been#the#destination#
for#resettlement#from#the#highlands,#including#Geblen#(respondent#IR3).#According#to#my#
166#
#
respondents#in#Geblen#who#had#taken#part#in#the#resettlement#programme,#these#areas#have#
already#been#seen#tensions#between#‘indigenous’#pastoralists,#investors#and#new#arrivals#
(respondents#GM12,#GM24).##
Inaccurate#classifications#of#‘unused’#land#therefore#stem#both#from#inadequate#land#surveys#as#
well#as#the#conceptualisation#of#land#use#from#the#perspective#of#settled#agriculture,#which#
dismisses#the#use#of#land#by#other#livelihoods.#As#such#the#identification#of#‘available’#land#
involves#a#value#judgement#by#the#state#regarding#the#productivity#of#existing#land#use.##
Investment%in%the%highlands%
Although#most#investment#land#lies#in#sparsely,populated#lowlands,#map#9.2#and#the#case#studies#
show#that#some#land,#which#is#or#could#be#cultivated#by#smallholders,#has#been#leased#in#heavily, populated#areas.#As#such,#the#smallholder#and#investor#sectors#are#not#entirely#separate,#as#
frequently#claimed#by#government#officials.#First,#several#state#farms#have#been#leased#to#
investors#in#recent#years.#These#include#3,000#hectares#in#Bale,#Oromiya#leased#to#the#
Government#of#Djibouti#to#grow#grain#(Wudineh#Zenebe#2010)#and#an#unspecified#amount#of#land#
in#Hadiya#and#Kembata,#SNNPR#leased#to#flower#farms#(respondent#SR4).##
A#second#category#in#highland#areas#is#communal#grazing#land,#plots#of#which#have#been#leased#to#
mostly#domestic,#but#also#some#foreign,#investors.#As#in#Turufe#Kechema#and#Korodegaga,#on#the#
whole#these#plots#are#relatively#small#(usually#5,10#hectares).#However,#a#project#established#by#
an#Indian#investor,#Karuturi,#on#communal#land#in#Bako,#Oromiya#is#exceptionally#large,#covering#
10,000#hectares#(Dessalegn#Rahmato#2011,#Messele#Fisseha#2011).#Like#land#in#pastoral#areas,#
most#communal#land#is#unregistered#and#is#considered#by#government#officials#to#be#a#
government,#not#a#community,#resource.#The#case#studies#in#chapter#eight#found#that#leases#of#
communal#land#are#subject#to#discussion#between#local#government#officials#and#local#people#at#
community#meetings.#Nevertheless,#a#minority#of#respondents#stated#that#these#meetings#were#a#
mere#formality#and#they#did#not#have#the#power#to#reject#the#projects#in#practice.#Investors#pay#a#
land#lease#fee#to#local#government#but#provide#no#financial#compensation#to#the#community,#
instead#making#informal#promises#that#they#will#contribute#to#communities#by#building#schools#or#
clinics,#and#providing#employment.#Nonetheless,#the#leases#ignore#the#valuable#role#of#communal#
land#in#local#livelihoods#(Platteau#2005),#further#eroding#the#protection#provided#by#the#land#
policy.#
Perhaps#the#most#controversial#category#of#investment#land#is#that#already#cultivated#by#
smallholders.#Despite#economic#challenges#in#the#smallholder#sector,#smallholders#retain#
considerable#political#importance#and#the#government#is#keen#to#avoid#displacement.#
Nevertheless,#in#certain#cases,#government#assessments#of#agricultural#potential#have#concluded#
that#labour,intensive#smallholder#agriculture#has#been#insufficient#to#take#advantage#of#available#
agricultural#resources.#Investors#potentially#offer#the#capacity#to#develop#resources,#in#particular#
water#for#irrigation,#beyond#that#of#smallholders.#All#of#this#land#leased#to#investors#in#the#
highlands#could#and,#according#to#ADLI,#should#be#distributed#to#smallholders,#addressing#
landlessness#and,#based#on#intensive#cultivation,#achieving#a#higher#yield#per#hectare.#Instead,#the#
government#increasingly#gives#priority#to#investors,#reversing#its#position#on#the#productivity#of#
smallholder#agriculture.##
167#
#
Social!policy!and!the!subsequent!social!context!of!production!
The#case#studies#examined#in#chapter#eight#constitute#three#examples#drawn#from#the#range#of#
possible#trajectories#from#prior#to#subsequent#land#use.#Table#9.2#identifies#examples#of#these#
trajectories,#where#available,#as#well#as#the#principal#changes#involved#in#the#systems#of#
production.#I#have#found#no#investments#in#which#uncultivated#land#(type#5#in#table#9.2),#
communal#land#(type#6)#or#state#farms#(type#7)#have#been#leased#to#investors#using#outgrowers,#a#
change#which#could#combine#investment#with#smallholder#expansion#to#address#land#shortages.#
Instead,#investments#on#‘unused’#land,#like#that#in#Hawi#Gudina,#tend#to#be#large,#mostly#foreign, owned#investments#with#capital,intensive#production#employing#some#wage#labourers#(type#1).#In#
contrast,#investments#on#communal#grazing#land,#like#those#in#Korodegaga#and#Turufe#Kechema,#
are#usually#small#and#involve#domestic#investors#employing#wage#labourers#(type#2).#
As#a#consequence#of#commercial#pressures#and#the#government’s#desire#to#boost#foreign#
exchange#earnings,#communally#held#land—small#areas#of#grazing#land#in#highland#villages#and#
larger#expanses#in#the#lowlands—is#being#transferred#to#a#tenure#system#that#in#important#
respects#approximates#private#ownership.#Until#recently,#customary#leaders#in#many#peripheral,#
lowland#areas#administered#land#with#relatively#little#state#involvement.#Such#customary#tenure,#
like#state#land#ownership,#provides#some#protection#for#community#members#against#
displacement#(Platteau#2005),#albeit#likely#differentiated#based#on#gender#and#insider,outsider#
hierarchies.#In#contrast,#while#land#leased#to#investors#remains#state#owned#and#regulated,#
investors’#contracts#provide#long,term#secure#access,#the#ability#to#borrow#against#landholdings#
and#even#rights#to#transfer#land#to#other#investors#(Oromiya#Investment#Commission#n.d.,#
Badrinath#2011).#Although#the#strong#state#role#in#approving#land#transfers#and#investors’#plans#
means#that#this#tenure#system#falls#short#of#full#privatisation,#the#land#rights#bestowed#on#
investors#nevertheless#go#well#beyond#those#of#smallholders.#In#the#process,#however,#the#
narrative#of#‘unused’#land#has#been#used#to#question#pastoralists’#land#use#and#to#discursively#
delineate#boundaries#to#the#peasant#security#discourse,#excluding#people#practicing#pastoralism#
and#shifting#cultivation#from#the#protection#of#the#land#policy.#Expansion#of#the#PSNP#in#emerging#
regions#appears#to#be#the#only#state#social#policy#to#address#the#new#risks#faced#by#these#
populations.#
The#only#examples#of#outgrower#schemes#have#occurred#on#individual#holdings,#as#in#Waqqee#
Xiyyoo#and#Hawi#Gudina#(type#8).#Indeed,#the#government’s#preference#is#for#investors#in#
smallholder#areas#to#establish#outgrower#schemes#in#the#expectation#that#investor#capital#can#be#
combined#with#the#land#and#labour#of#smallholders.#Outgrower#schemes#have#been#suggested#by#
some#observers#as#one#means#by#which#agricultural#projects#could#produce#‘win,win’#situations,#
incorporating#smallholders#into#investment#projects,#while#boosting#productivity#(Cotula#et%al.#
2009,#von#Braun#and#Meinzen,Dick#2009).#Nevertheless,#for#such#schemes#to#benefit#outgrowers,#
there#must#be#a#degree#of#balance#in#negotiating#power#between#the#parties#to#the#agreement#
(Little#and#Watts#1994).#This#requires#the#outgrowers#to#be#able#to#decline#an#agreement#if#it#is#
not#in#their#interests#and,#as#Li#(2011)#shows,#often#requires#state#intervention#to#support#
outgrowers#who#are#in#a#weak#bargaining#position.#In#the#cases#examined,#however,#while#state#
organisations#were#heavily#involved#in#the#establishment#of#outgrower#schemes,#the#state#did#not#
intervene#to#safeguard#the#interests#of#the#outgrowers,#but#rather#supported#the#investors#and#
intervene#to#safeguard#the#interests#of#the#outgrowers,#but#rather#supported#the#investors#and#