La Dinámica de las Prácticas de Literatura Inglesa en Primer Ciclo y los

The adolescent's intrapersonal relationship comprises the perception the adolescent has about him- or herself. This is based on genetic factors, character and personality traits, as well as on personal resources (McWhirter et al., 2007). During the adolescent phase, individuals may encounter a variety of internal stressors in different developmental domains, which influence the way they interact with social contexts (Wild & Swartz, 2012).

These stressors are related to the physiological and emotional changes which occur during adolescence (Moses & Meintjies, 2010). Contingent factors include poverty, being removed from families, being exposed to substance abuse, and marginalization from the community, all of which can create turmoil in adolescents at various levels of their development (Reynolds, 2009). These levels are reviewed below.

 Physical development

Wild and Swartz (2012) describe adolescence as a critical period in terms of physical growth and physiological changes. Physical maturation of the body, which may occur earlier or later depending on the individual, may present challenges to social and psychological development (Berger, 2006). Meece and Daniels (2008) note that different body parts mature at different rates and these changes may cause feelings of ineptness, leading to adjustment problems for many. Adolescents who mature earlier tend to engage with older individuals and experiment with risk- taking, showing defiant or antisocial attitudes, as well as showing symptoms of depression if they 'do not fit in' with the rest of the age group (Wild & Swartz, 2012).

Adolescents, including AIRC, whose physical development may have been affected by prenatal alcohol consumption or other forms of early childhood trauma, face difficulties in cognitive, social, educational and emotional development, adding to the risk factors which could affect their optimal development (Koller & Hutz, 2001).

 Cognitive development

The socio-economic circumstances in which adolescents find themselves, including prolonged exposure to stress, violence, or a dearth of learning opportunities, can affect and inhibit their cognitive development (Wild & Swartz, 2012). Because of such delays in cognitive maturation, AIRCs may encounter difficulties in establishing interpersonal relationships, and in communicating and functioning optimally in social environments.

In addition, as Meece and Daniels (2008) explain, the brain undergoes a change in structure with the onset of puberty. Berger (2006) notes that rational thinking is temporarily displaced by emotional reactions and impulsivity, coupled with the appetite for intense sensory experiences. They engage in activities such as alcohol and drug abuse, which satisfy their craving both for novelty and for risk taking, while ignoring the effects these thrills might have on their intellectual well-being (Wild & Swartz, 2012). These changes in the brain, combined with the unstable social milieu in which many AIRC grow up, can lead to risk-taking behaviour and attitudes which challenge social norms and principles.

 Language and educational development

Slow progress of aspects such as linguistic ability may have serious consequences, leading to precarious thinking and limited aptitudes. Those AIRC who previously lived on the street will

have had limited social interaction with adults and inadequate educational stimulation (Koller & Hutz, 2001). Levin and Haines (2007) suggest that AIRC develop and acquire new information primarily within the residential care context. Language development takes place through social interactions. Exposure to various language-rich experiences, such as educational programmes, is needed to promote communication skills and knowledge of language (Martin & Jackson, 2002).  Psychosocial development

Psychosocial development in adolescence involves acquiring life skills in preparation for adult roles and for becoming independent (Wild & Swartz, 2012). Unfortunately, the failure of social interaction between the adolescent, family and peers, can severely compromise the development of such skills (Moletsane, 2012). The removal of adolescents from their home environments can be traumatic, leaving them with feelings of rejection and a negative self-image (Marais, 2008). Koller and Hutz (2001) add that social rejection as well as stigma from the community may likewise inhibit the development of interpersonal skills.

AIRC who have a history of living on the street tend to see residential facilities merely as a way to survive and not as a solution to their unfavourable life situation (Koller & Hutz, 2001). The chances of their developing sound relationships with supportive adults, family members or peers in the community are therefore limited. Finely (2008) argues that exposing them to novel experiences will increase their confidence as they interact with unfamiliar individuals, as well as finding success and acknowledgement in situations to which they previously had no exposure. Stanton, McKissock and Dailey (2010) hold that an increase in self-esteem promotes both psychosocial and emotional development, as discussed below.

 Emotional development

During adolescence, young people experience changes with the development of self-esteem (acceptance of self) and self-concept (perception of self). The way others perceive them, in terms of their physical appearance, personality or cognitive ability, plays an important role in their development and to a great extent determines the value they place on their own lives (Wild & Swartz, 2012). As noted above, AIRC face challenges with stereotyping and rejection from people in the community. These erode their self-esteem and self-awareness, leading to risk- taking behaviour and attitudes. Under-development in these domains may reduce their confidence and their power to actualize their own latent skills (Van Vilsteren et al., 2011).

A strong connection has been noted between neglect and an inability to show empathy in those who have experienced abandonment in various forms (Burgon, 2011). Lexman and Reeves (2009, cited in Burgon, 2011, p. 177) define empathy as "an ability to put yourself in another person's shoes and to act in a way that is sensitive to other people's perspectives." The awareness by many AIRC of other people's needs often remains undeveloped. Their own needs are seldom fulfilled, and they are therefore insensitive to the needs of others. Burgon (2011, p. 174) argues that developing empathy is "imperative to the healthy emotional and social functioning of youths", and is thus an area in which AIRC need additional support.

However, Koller and Hutz (2001) found that AIRC are mentally and emotionally healthier than those who continue to live with disorganized families. Such individuals are exposed to adverse domestic circumstances such as poverty, abuse and unhygienic living conditions. Support for healthy emotional development is needed for adolescents to reach their full potential, regardless of the social circumstances in which they find themselves (Wild & Swartz, 2012).

Identity formation, as an aspect of emotional development, is a critical process. This too may not be realized, as AIRC often choose to solve this problem by following a negative pathway while hoping to create an intelligible sense of identity. These attempts to explore and establish their own identity are accompanied by experiential, high-risk activities and socially unacceptable behaviour (Reddy et al., 2010).

According to Kimball (2009), the formation of adolescents' identities is often marked by involvement in spiritual practices and religious thinking. By establishing spiritual connections, they explore concepts such as self-awareness, achieving acceptance and interdependence with others, as well as personal values. Social support professionals need to be aware of the rich presence of spiritual factors at play in the lives of AIRC (Kimball, 2009). These are founded on experiences, beliefs and traditions which have influenced and given meaning to human development across time, as they will continue to do in the future (Kimball, 2009).

In brief, adolescents develop as individuals, regardless of the circumstances in which they may find themselves. In order for them to grow with self-respect and become attuned and dynamic citizens, their basic needs have to be met. These include appropriate care for their well-being, a nurturing 'home' environment, security, and educational opportunities, as well as acknowledgement of their human rights (Koller & Hutz, 2001). Supportive relationships in the various systems in the community are essential to addressing the consequences of trauma (Commission for Children and Young People and Child Guardian, 2012). Phillips Swanson

(2010) echoes the above statement and highlights the need for adolescents to receive active, consistent support in their developing years, helping them to build self-awareness and form a healthy identity. These developmental needs are presented below.