This study has exposed the fact that Kenya faces many societal and political challenges. These challenges have resulted in what can be described as a highly politicised society. For Kenya to successfully transform into a society that is not burdened by ethnicity, it needs to take bold steps, in order to deal with the ethnic problem. The political figures and those who hold public office need to acknowledge that they have been responsible for politicising politics in Kenya.
Kenya’s society has been politicised in many ways; and in many instances, ethnicity has been used to dispense power, and resources. This has resulted in the polarisation of the various ethnic groups in Kenya. Part of the solution to Kenya’s ethnic problem is to dissociate ethnicity from politics. One way to make this possible is by removing ethnicity as one of the conditions for accessing resources.
The second problem that has plagued Kenya has been the alignment of politics on the basis of ethnicity. As stated in this study, political coalitions are not informed by issues of common interest, such as a similar political outlook. The political candidates are so concerned with securing numbers that political campaigns are less about issues of national interest, but more about tribal and ethnicity-related issues. The political campaign run by Odinga in 2008 illustrates this point. The anti-Kikuyu rhetoric was meant to incite other ethnic groups against the Kikuyu.
Of course, the intention was to build enough support for his political party in the polls by getting all the other groups to unite against the Kikuyu. This would have worked for winning the elections; but this would have not have helped ethnic relations in the long run. Herein lies the problem with Kenyan politics: Political expedience overrides responsible politics. The long-term effects of ethnicizing politics become the least of politicians’ concerns. For Kenya to avoid future ethnic conflicts, it needs to discard ethnicity-based politics, and to rather focus on issue-based politics.
149 In any democracy the role of institutions cannot be overestimated. Institutions have the potential to consolidate weak democracies by creating a system of checks and balances. This makes it possible to hold those in public office to account. The manner in which the electoral commission of Kenya handled the 2007 electoral process showed how institutions can undermine the democratic process. The ECK flouted their own rules by announcing Kibaki as the winner – even though they were not certain that he had won the election. This decision proved to be the catalyst for the violence that followed the 2007 elections.
The ECK was, however, not the only Kenyan institution to have been compromised due to lack of impartiality. It was indicated in this study that even law-enforcement agencies failed to remain impartial in the political crisis that occurred in 2008. Political institutions in Kenya need to be overhauled. This process needs to include an assessment of the capacity of these institutions to deal with crisis situations. However, the most challenging aspect in Kenya is that these institutions are not led by individuals with skills that add value, but only by those who belong to the dominant ethnic group. The question that was posed in this study related to the effects of political coalitions that are based heavily on ethnicity. The question is whether these political or ethnic coalitions are having a bearing on the potential conflict in Kenya. This question cannot be dealt with adequately in this study. The author is of the view that this question needs to be interrogated sufficiently through further research. Future studies that examine the causes of ethnic conflicts in Kenya would need to thoroughly examine the impact of political coalitions that are based on ethnicity.
References
Adida, C.L. 2011. ‘Too Close for Comfort? Immigrant Exclusion in Africa’. Comparative Political Studies. Vol. 44 (10). Pp 1370-1396.
Africa Confidential. 2011. ‘How Banda got bounced’. Vol. 52 (21). Pp. 11
Agger, B. 1991. ‘Critical Theory, Poststructuralism, Postmodernism: Their Sociological Relevance’. Annual Review of Sociology. Vol. 17. Pp. 105-131.
Ajulu, R. 1998. ‘Kenya's Democracy Experiment: The 1997 Elections’. Review of African Political Economy. Vol. 25 (76). Pp. 275-285.
Ajulu, R. 2002. ‘Politicised Ethnicity, Competitive Politics and Conflict in Kenya: A Historical Perspective’. African Studies. Vol. 61 (2). Pp. 251-268.
Ake, C. 1993. ‘What is the problem of ethnicity in South Africa’. Transformation. Vol. 22 (1). Pp. 1-14.
Akech, M. 2011. ‘Abuse of Power and Corruption in Kenya: Will the New Constitution Enhance Government Accountability’? Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies. Vol. 18 (1). Pp. 341-394.
Akyeampong, E. 2006: ‘The Power of Constructed Identities? Thinking through Ethnicity in Africa’. Research Review. Vol. 22 (2). 1-12.
Alonso, A.M. 1994. ‘The Politics of Space, Time and Substance: State Formation, Nationalism and Ethnicity’. Annual Review of Anthropology. Vol. 23. Pp. 379-405.
Anderson, D.M. 2005. ‘Yours in struggle for Majimbo. Nationalism and the party politics of Decolonization in Kenya, 1955-64’. Journal of Contemporary History. Vol. 40 (3). Pp. 547-564.
151 Andreassen, B.A., Geisler, G. & Tostensen, A. 1992. ‘Setting a Standard for Africa? Lessons from the 1991 Zambian Elections’.
Aseka, E.M. 2007. ‘History, Culture and National Development: The Role of Kenyan Diaspora in Constructing a New Politics of Culture and Identity’. Keynote address on the "The Role of the Kenyan Diaspora in Kenya's Development", International Conference held at Kennesaw State University, Georgia March 22-24, 2007.
Aspinall, E. 2007. ‘The Construction of Grievance: Natural Resources and Identity in a Separatist Conflict’. The Journal of Conflict Resolution. Vol. 51 (6). Pp. 950-972.
Azarya, V. 2003. ‘Ethnicity and conflict management in post-colonial Africa’. Nationalism and Ethnic Politics. Vol. 9 (3). Pp.1-24.
Babbie, E. 1989. The practice of social research. Wadsworth Publishing Company. Belmont.
Baker, T.L. 1988. Doing social research. McGraw-Hill. New York.
Bamfo, N. 2005. ‘Term Limit and Political Incumbency in Africa: Implications of Staying in Power Too Long with References to the Cases of Kenya, Malawi, and Zambia’. African and Asian Studies. African and Asian Studies. Vol. 4 (3). Pp. 328- 355.
Barkan, J.D. 2004. ‘Kenya after Moi’. Foreign Affairs. Vol. 83 (1). Pp. 83-100.
Barle, D.G & Uys, F.M. 2002. Macro perspective on intergovernmental relations in respect of local political structures’. Journal of Public Administration. Vol. 37 (2). Pp. 140-165.
Bartlett, M.C. 2000. ‘Civil Society and Democracy: a Zambian Case Study’. Journal of Southern African Studies. Vol. 26 (3). Pp. 429-446.
Berman, B.J. 1998. ‘Ethnicity, Patronage and the African State: The Politics of Uncivil Nationalism’. Vol. 97 (388). Pp. 305-341.
Bernstein, M. 2005. ‘Identity Politics’. Annual Review of Sociology. Vol. 31. Pp. 47- 74.
Blanton, R., Mason, T.D. & Athow, B. 2001. ‘Colonial Style and Post-Colonial Ethnic Conflict in Africa’. Vol. 38 (4). Pp. 473-491
Block, A. 2009 ‘Democracy from A to Z (America to Zambia, that is)’. Harvard Kennedy School Review. Pp. 90-93.
Bond, R. 2006. ‘Belonging and Becoming: National Identity and Exclusion’. Sociology. Vol. 40 (4). Pp. 609-626.
Brown, S. 2001. ‘Authoritarian leaders and multiparty elections in Africa: how foreign donors help to keep Kenya’s Daniel arap Moi in power’. Third World Quarterly. Vol. 22 (5). Pp. 725-739.
Brown, S. 2004. ‘Theorising Kenya's protracted transition to democracy’. Journal of Contemporary African Studies. Vol. 22 (3). Pp. 325-342.
Burnell, P. 2001. ‘The Party System and Party Politics in Zambia: Continuities Past, Present and Future’. African Affairs. Vol. 100. Pp. 239-263.
Calhoun, C. 1999. ‘Nationalism and Ethnicity’. Annual Review of Sociology. Vol. 19. Pp. 211-239.
Carotenuto, M. 2006. ‘Cultivating Identity in Colonial and Postcolonial Kenya’. Africa Today. Vol. 53 (2). 53-73.
Carter, B. & Fenton, S. 2009. ‘Not Thinking Ethnicity: A Critique of the
Ethnicity Paradigm in an Over-Ethnicised Sociology’. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour. Vol. 40 (1). Pp. 1-18.
153 Caselli, F. & Coleman, W.J. 2010. On the Theory of Ethnic Conflict. Final Draft 2010.
Castles, S. 2010. ‘Understanding Global Migration: A Social Transformation Perspective’. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. Vol. 36 (10). Pp. 1565-1586. Central Statistical Office. 2003. Summary Report for the 2000 Census of Population and Housing. Zambian Census of Population and Housing.
Chandra, K. 2006. ‘What is ethnic identity and does it matter’. Review of Political Science. Vol. 25 (3). Pp. 1-28
Chebanne, A. 2010. ‘The Khoisan in Botswana – Can multicultural discourses redeem them’. Journal of Multicultural Discourses. Vol. 5 (2). Pp. 87-105.
Cheeseman, N. & Hinfelaar M. 2009. ‘Parties, Platforms, and Political Mobilisation: The Zambian Presidential Election of 2008. Vol. 109 (434). Pp. 51-76.
Chemengich, M.K. 2009. ‘The Prospects of civil society driven change in Kenya’. In Wanyanye, P. & Okebe, M.A. (ed). Civil Society in Kenya. Published by African Research and Resource Forum.
Braun, V. & Clarke, V. 2006. ‘Using thematic analysis in psychology’. Qualitative Research in Psychology’. Vol. 3 (2). Pp. 77 – 101.
Collins, R. 1992. ‘The rise and fall of modernism in politics and religion’. Acta Sociologica. Vol. 35 (3). Pp. 171-186.
Currie, K. & Ray, L. 1984. ‘State and Class in Kenya – Notes on the Cohesion of the Ruling Class’. The Journal of Modern African Studies. Vol. 22 (2). Pp. 559-593.
Della Porta, D. & Keating, M. 2008. ‘Comparing approaches, methodologies and methods. Some concluding remarks’. In Della Porta, D. & Keating, M. (ed.).
Approaches and Methodologies in the Social Sciences. Cambridge University Press. New York.
Denscombe, M. 2003. ‘The good research guide: for small-scale research projects’. Open University Press. Buckingham.
Dobler, G. 2010. ‘On the Border to Chaos: Identity Formation on the
Angolan-Namibian Border, 1927-2008’. Journal of Borderland Studies. Vol. 25 (2). Pp. 22-35.
Du Plessis, S. 2006. ‘Institutions and Institutional Change in Zambia’. Institutions and Institutional Change in Zambia. Vol. 16 (6). Pp. 2-17.
Duncan, L.E. & Stewart, A.J. 2007. ‘Personal Political Salience: The Role of Personality in Collective Identity and Action’. Political Psychology. Vol. 28 (2). Pp 143-164.
Ekeh, P.P. 1975. ‘Colonialism and the Two Publics in Africa: A Theoretical Statement’. Comparative Studies in Society and History. Vol. 17 (1). Pp. 91-112.
Eriksen, T.H. 1991. ‘Ethnicity versus Nationalism’. Journal of Peace Research. Vol. 28 (3). Pp. 263-278.
Fearon, J.D. 2004. Ethnic Mobilization and Ethnic Violence. Department of Political Science. Stanford University.
Fuh-sheng Hsieh, J. 2005. ‘Ethnicity, National Identity, and Domestic Politics in Taiwan’. Journal of Asian and African Studies. Vol. 40 (2). Pp. 13-27.
Gennaioli, N. & Rainer, I. 2005. ‘Precolonial Centralization and Institutional Quality in Africa’. Pp. 1-27.
Gil-White, F.J. 1999. ‘How thick is blood? The plot thickens . . .: if ethnic actors are primordialists, what remains of the circumstantialist/primordialist controversy?’. Ethnic and Racial Studies. Vol. 22 (5). Pp. 789-820.
155 Greene, O.N. 2002. ‘Ethnicity, Modernity, and Retention in the Garifuna Punta’. Black Music Research Journal. Vol. 22 (1). Pp. 189-216.
Haapanen, T & Waller, M. 2007. ‘Civil Society in Zambia and Mozambique’. Working Paper. Vol. 17. Pp. 1 – 28.
Hampwaye, G. & Rogerson, C.M. 2010. ‘Economic restructuring in the Zambian Copperbelt: Local responses in Ndola’. Urban Forum. Vol. 21 (4). Pp. 387-403.
Hills, A. 2007. ‘Police Commissioners, Presidents and the Governance of Security’. The Journal of Modern African Studies. Vol. 45 (3). Pp. 403-423.
Hitchcock, R.K. 2002. ‘We are the First People': Land, Natural Resources and Identity in the Central Kalahari, Botswana’. Journal of Southern African Studies. Vol. 28 (4). Pp. 797-824.
Holmquist, F. & wa Githinji, M. 2009. ‘The Default Politics of Ethnicity in Kenya’. Journal of World Affairs. Vol. XVI (1). Pp. 101-117.
Horowitz, J. 2009. ‘Ethnic Groups and Campaign Strategy in Kenya’s 2007 Election’. University of California. Pp. 1-50.
Horowitz, D.L. 1985. Ethnic Groups in Conflict. University of California Press. Los Angeles.
Houe, N. 2010. ‘Civil Society and legitimacy in Kenya’. The Project Advice and Training Centre (PATC). Denmark
Ilorah, R. 2009. ‘Ethnic bias, favouritism and development in Africa’. Development in Southern Africa. Vol. 26 (5). Pp. 695-707.
Inter-Parliamentary Union, 2009. Parliament’s Role in the Development Agenda: Two Case Studies. Prepared by a team of experts commissioned by the Inter- Parliamentary Union
Jaspal, R. & Cinnirella, M. 2012. ‘The construction of ethnic identity: Insights from identity process theory’. Ethnicities. Vol. 0 (0). Pp. 1-28.
Jelen, T.G. 1991. ‘Politicized Group Identification: The Case of Fundamentalism’. The Western Political Quarterly. Vol. 44 (1). 209-219.
Jinadu, L.A. 1997. ‘Matters Arising: African Elections and the Problem of Electoral Administration’. African Association of Political Science. Vol. 2 (1). Vol. 1-11.
Kagwanja, P. & Southall, R. 2009. ‘Introduction: Kenya – A democracy in retreat?’. Journal of Contemporary African Studies. Vol. 27 (3). 259 – 277.
Kaya, I. 2007. ‘Identity Politics: The Struggle for Recognition or Hegemony?’ East European Politics and Societies’. Vol. 21 (4). Pp. 704-725.
Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. 2008. Kenya Demographic and Health Survey 2008-09.
Khmelko, I. & Wiegand, K.E. 2010. ‘Government repression in ethnic conflict: Institutional incentives and cultural legacies’. International Journal of World Peace. Vol. XXVII (2). Pp. 7-34.
Kilonzo, S. 2009. ‘Short commentary: under fire ethnic minorities wedged up in post- election violence in Kenya: a lesson for African governments’. University of South Africa Press. Vol. 23 (2). Pp. 245-251.
Klopp, J.M. 2009. ‘Kenya’s unfinished agendas’. Journal of International Affairs. Vol. 62 (2). Pp. 143-158.
Korieh, C.J. 2006. ‘African Ethnicity as Mirage? Historicizing the Essence of the Igbo in Africa and the Atlantic Diaspora’. Dialectical Anthropology. Vol. 30. Pp. 91-118.
157 Kratochwil, F. 2008. ‘Constructivism: what it is (not) and how it matters’. In Della Porta, D & Keating, M. (ed.). Approaches and Methodologies in the Social Sciences. Cambridge University Press. New York.
Kwatemba, S.W. 2008. ‘Ethnicity and political pluralism in Kenya’. Journal of African Elections. Vol. 7 (2). Pp. 77-112.
Larmer, M. & Fraser, A. 2007. ‘Of cabbages and King Cobra: Populist politics and Zambia’s 2006 election’. African Affairs. Vol. 106 (425). Pp. 611-637.
Larmer, M. 2006. ‘’ A little bit like a volcano – The United Progressive Party and resistance to one-party rule in Zambia, 1964-1980. The International Journal of African Historical Studies. Vol. 39 (1). Pp. 49-83.
Larsen, L. 2011. ‘Nations of Nation in Nairobi’s Nyayo-Era’. African Studies. Vol. 70 (2). Pp. 264-283.
Levine, H.B. 1999. ‘Reconstructing Ethnicity’. The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute. Vol. 5 (2). Pp. 165-180.
Lobler, H. 2011. ‘Position and potential of service-dominant logic – Evaluated in an 'ism' frame for further development’. Marketing Theory. Vol. 11 (1). Pp. 51-73.
Lonsdale, J. 2008. ‘Soil, Work, Civilisation, and Citizenship in Kenya’. Journal of Eastern African Studies’. Vol. 2 (2). Pp. 305-314.
Makumbe, J.W. 1998. ‘Is there a civil society in Africa’? International Affairs. Vol. 74 (2). Pp. 305-317.
Malesevic, S. 2011. ‘Ethnicity in time and space: A conceptual analysis’. Critical Sociology. Vol. 37 (1). Pp. 67-82.
Mars, P. 1990. ‘Ethnic conflict and political control: The Guyana Case’. Social and Economic Studies. Vol. 39 (3). Pp. 65-94.
Marsh, D. & Savigny, H. 2004. ‘Political Science as a Broad Church: The Search for a Pluralist Discipline’. Politics. Vol. 24 (3). Pp. 155-168.
Mbaku, J.M. 2004. ‘NEPAD and Prospects for Development in Africa’. International Studies. Vol. 41 (4). Pp. 387- 409.
Mbondenyi, M.K. 2011. ‘Some Viable Lessons from the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights’. Journal of African Law. Vol. 55 (1). Pp. 30-58.
McLoughlin, M.J. 2008. ‘Horowitz’s theory of ethnic party competition and the case of the Northern Ireland Social Democratic and Labour Party, 1970–79’. Nationalism and Ethnic Politics. Vol. 14. Pp. 549-578.
Meyns, P. 2005. ‘Can Zambia’s Political System Deliver the Goods?’. In: Eberlei, Walter / Meyns, Peter / Mutesa, Fred (eds.) (2005): Poverty Reduction in a Political Trap? The PRS Process and Neopatrimonialism in Zambia. Lusaka: UNZA Press, 29- 56.
Milimo, J.T. 1993. ‘Multiparty democracy in Africa: Lessons from Zambia’. International Journal of World Peace. Vol. 10 (1). Pp. 35-42.
Ministry of Finance and National Planning, 2010. ‘Zambia Population Factors & National Development’. Published January, 2010.
Montalvo, J.G. & Reynal-Quero, M. 2005. ‘Ethnic Polarization, Potential Conflict, and Civil Wars. The American Economic Review. Vol. 95 (3). Pp. 796-816.
Msindo, E. 2005. ‘Language and ethnicity in Matabeleland: Ndebele-Kalanga relations in Southern Zimbabwe, 1930-1960’. International Journal of African Historical Studies: Vol. 38 (1). Pp.79-103.
Mueller, S.D. 2011. ‘Dying to win: Elections, political violence, and institutional decay in Kenya’. Journal of Contemporary African Studies. Vol. 29 (1). Pp. 99-117.
159 Murithi, T. 2007. ‘Alternative Electoral Systems’. Keele University.
Mutonyi, J. 2002. ‘Fighting Corruption: Is Kenya on the Right Track?’ Police Practice and Research. Vol. 3 (1). Pp. 21-39.
Mwaura, P.N. & Martinon, C.M. 2010. ‘Political violence in Kenya and local churches’ responses: The case of the 2007 post-election crisis’. The Review of Faith & International Affairs. Pp. 39-46.
Ndletyana, M. 2008. ‘Political Management of Ethnic Perceptions: An Assessment of the African National Congress’. Human Sciences Research Council, Pretoria, South Africa.
Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S.J. 2010. ‘Do ‘Africans’ exist? Genealogies and paradoxes of African identities and the discourses of nativism and xenophobia’. African Identities. Vol. 8 (3). Pp. 281-295.
Njororai, S. & Wycliffe, W. 2006. ‘Colonial legacy, minorities and association football in Kenya’. Soccer & Society. Vol. 10 (6). Pp. 866-882.
Nunn, N. 2007. “Historical Legacies: A Model Linking Africa's Past to its Current Underdevelopment”. Journal of Development Economics. Vol. 83(1). Pp. 157-175.
Nyambuga, C.O. 2011. The role of the press in political conflicts in Kenya: A case study of the performance of the nation and the East African Standard Newspapers. Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorate of Philosophy in the Faculty of Arts at the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, South Africa
Nyinguro, P.O. & Otenyo, E.E. 2007. ‘Social Movements and Democratic
Transitions in Kenya’. Journal of Asian and African Studies. Vol. 42 (1). Pp. 5-24.
O denge, P. 2009. ‘Colonialism and its Legacies in Kenya’. Lecture delivered during Fulbright – Hays Group project abroad program: July 5th to August 6th 2009 at the Moi University Main Campus
Ogude, J. 2002. ‘Ethnicity, Nationalism and the Making of Democracy in Kenya: An Introduction’. African Studies. Vol. 61 (2). 205-207.
Okuku, J.A. 2002. ‘Civil Society and the Democratisation Processes in Kenya and Uganda: A Comparative Analysis of the Contribution of the Church and NGOs. Vol. 7 (2). Pp. 81-97.
Orvis, S. 2006. ‘Conclusion: Bringing Institutions back into the Study of Kenya and Africa’. Africa Today. Vol. 53 (2). Pp. 95-110.
Osamba, J. 2001. ‘The dynamics of ethnopolitical conflict and violence in the Rift Valley province of Kenya’. Nationalism and Ethnic Politics. Vol. 7 (4). Pp. 87-112.
Osborne, M. 2010. ‘The Kamba and Mau Mau: Ethnicity, Development, and Chiefship’. International Journal of African Historical Studies. Vol. 43 (1). Pp. 63-87. 1952-1960 369
Osei-Hwedie, K. & Osei-Hwedie, B. 1992. Reflections on Zambia's Demographic Profile and Population Policy. Journal of Social Development in Africa. Vol. 7 (1). Pp. 87-97.
Osei-Hwedie, B. 1998. ‘The role of ethnicity in multi-party politics in Malawi and Zambia’. Journal of Contemporary African Studies. Vol. 16 (2). Pp. 227-247.
Otieno, G. 2005. ‘The NARC’s Anti-corruption drive in Kenya’. African Security Review. Vol. 14 (4). Pp. 69-79.
Oyugi, W.O. 1997. ‘Ethnicity in The Electoral Process: The 1992 General Elections In Kenya’. The African Journal of Politics. Vol. 2 (1). Pp. 41-69.
Oyugi, W.O. 2000. ‘Politicised Ethnic Conflict in Kenya A Periodic Phenomenon’. Addis Ababa.
161 Paglia, Pamela. “Ethnicity and Tribalism: Are These the Root Causes of the Sudanese Civil Conflicts?” Retrieved on 20 June 2013, 2008, from
http://www.africaeconomicanalysis.org/articles/pdf/sudan0807.pdf.
Phiri, B.J. 2001. ‘Colonial Legacy and the Role of Society in the Creation and Demise of Autocracy in Zambia, 1964-1991’. Nordic Journal of African Studies. Vol. 10 (2). Pp. 224-244.
Phiri, B.J. 2010. ‘Zambia’. ‘From one-party rule to democracy’. In Cawthra, G, du Pisani, A. & Omari, A. (ed.). Security and Democracy in Southern Africa. Wits University Press. Johannesburg.
Posner, D.N. 2003. ‘The Colonial Origins of Ethnic Cleavages: The Case of Linguistic Divisions in Zambia’. Comparative Politics. Vol. 35 (2). Pp. 127-146.
Posner, D.N. 2007. ‘Regime Change and Ethnic Cleavages in Africa’. Comparative Political Studies. Vol. 40 (11). Pp. 1302-1327.
Posner, D.N. 2005. ‘Institutions and Ethnic Politics in Africa’. Comparative Political Studies. Vol. 39 (10). Pp. 1283-1291. Book Review by Leslie Gray.
Rakner, L. & SvAsand, L. 2004. ‘From Dominant to Competitive Party System: The Zambian Experience 1991-2001’. Party Politics. Vol. 10 (1). Pp. 49-68.
Rodriguez, L., Rodriguez, J. & Mojica, A.M. 2012. ‘Invisible boundaries in the construction of ethnic identity: A systemic development perspective’. Culture Psychology. Vol. 18 (2). Pp. 261-271.
Roth, W.D. & Mehta, J.L. 2002. ‘Combining Positivist and Interpretivist Approaches in the Analysis of Contested Events’. Sociological Methods & Research. Vol. 31. Pp. 131-173.
Rutten, R. & Owuor, S. 2009. ‘Weapons of mass destruction: Land, ethnicity, and the 2007 elections in Kenya’. Journal of Contemporary African Studies. Vol. 25 (3). Pp. 305 – 324.
Sandbrook, R. 1996. ‘Transitions without consolidation: democratization in six African cases’. Third World Quarterly. Vol. 17 (1). Pp. 69-87.
Shils, E. 1991. ‘The Virtue of civil society’. Lecture delivered at the Athenaeum Club. 22nd January 1991.
Simutanyi, N. 2005. ‘Parties in Parliament: the Relationship between
Members of Parliament and their Parties in Zambia’. EISA Occasional Paper 36. September 2005.
Smedley, A. 1999. ‘Race and the Construction of Human Identity’. American Anthropologist. Vol. 100 (3). Pp. 690-702.
Smith, A.D. 1996. ‘Culture, Community and Territory: The Politics of Ethnicity and Nationalism’. International Affairs. Vol. 72 (3). Pp. 445-458.
Steeves, J. 2006. ‘Presidential Succession in Kenya: The Transition from Moi to Kibaki’. Commonwealth & Comparative Politics. Vol. 44 (2). Pp. 211-233.
Stevenson, J. 2008. ‘Kenya’s Retrograde Election’. Survival. Vol. 50 (2). Pp. 11-18.
Tarimo, A. 2010. ‘Politicization of Ethnic Identities: The Case of Contemporary Africa’. Journal of Asian and African Studies. Vol. 45 (3). Pp. 299 - 308.
Taylor, S.D. 2006. ‘Divergent Politico-Legal Responses to past Presidential Corruption in Zambia and Kenya: Catching the 'Big Fish', or Letting Him off the Hook’? Third World Quarterly. Vol. 27 (2). Pp. 281-301.
The Parliamentarian, 2010. 2
Throup, D. 1993. ‘Elections and Political Legitimacy in Kenya’. Journal of the International African Institute. Vol. 63 (1). Pp. 371-396.
163 Topp, N.W. & Pawloski, B. 2002. ‘Online Data Collection’. Journal of Science Education and Technology. Vol. 11 (2). Pp. 173-178.
Tordoff, W. & Young, R.A. 1994. ‘Decentralisation and Public Sector Reform in Zambia’. Journal of Southern African Studies. Vol. 20 (2). Pp. 285-299.
Torres, A.F. 2007. Electoral Systems and Ethnic Identity: A Constructivist Approach. New York University.
Toure, S. 2004. ‘Africa’s Future of the World’. Source: unknown. Pp. 141-151.
Tusalem, R.F. 2007. ‘A Boon or a Bane? The Role of Civil Society in Third - and