Directed Hypergraphs and AND/OR graphs

BOD Biological Oxygen Demand

COD Chemical Oxygen Demand

DO Dissolved Oxygen

DPR Detailed Project Report

ENVIS Environmental Information System FFC Fish Farmer Cooperatives

IUCN International Union for conservation of Nature and Natural Resources J&K Jammu and Kashmir

JKCCC Jammu and Kashmir Cable Car Corporation

JKTDC Jammu and Kashmir Tourism Development Corporation LAWDA Lakes and Waterways Development Authority

LULC Land Use Land Cover

pH Hydrogen Positive ion Concentration PHE Public Health Engineering Department RSGC Royal spring Golf Course

SKICC Sher-e-Kashmir International Convention Centre SKIMS Sher-e-Kashmir Institute of Medical Sciences STP Sewage Treatment plant

WTO World Tourism Organization

WUMDA Wular and Manasbal Development authority

INTRODUCTION

 Conceptual Framework

Man has been a traveler through the ages in the instinctive quest for new horizons, resources and amusement. From the very early historical period, man has a fascination for travel. However, much of the travel in the initial stages was largely subconscious and a simple affair. The annals of tourism literature bear witness to the fact that the origin of word ‘Tourist’ dates back to the year 1292 A.D¹ and has been derived from the term ‘Tour’, a circle or a turner’s wheel, which signifies movement. In the first half of 17^th century, this term was first used for travelling from place to place like an excursion or a circuitous journey touching the principal parts of a country or a region.

The 19^th century dictionary defines ‘Tourist’ as “a person who travels for pleasure of travelling out of curiosity and because he has nothing better to do and even for the joy of boasting about it afterwards”. Conceptually, tourism arises from the movement of people to, and their stay in, different destinations.

Recently, tourism has acquired a tremendous economic importance as a significant foreign exchange earner in addition to its numerous socio-cultural benefits such as national integration and international understanding, creation of employment opportunities, removal of regional imbalances and changing the socio-economic scene of many developing nations like India.

According to World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC), tourism generated 9.8 per cent of World’s GDP (US $7.2 Trillion) and nearly 284 million jobs in the world economy in 2015. In fact, one in every 16 workers in World owes his/her job in tourism (Mohanty, 1992)². The number of International tourist arrivals worldwide in 2014 was 1.1 Billion³ compared to 762 million in 2004 and tourism contributed 6.88 per cent to the GDP of our country, India, in 2015. The number of Foreign Tourist

1 Misra, S. N., & Sadual, S. K. (2008). Basics of Tourism Management. Excel Books: New Delhi.

P.8

2 Mohanty, P. (1992). Hotel Industry and Tourism in India. Ashish Publishing House, Punjabi Bagh: Delhi. p.43

3 Retrieved from media.untwo.org/pres-release/2015-01-27/over 1.1 billion-tourists-travelled-abroad-2014

Arrivals (FTA’s) has increased from 6.96 million in 2013 to 7.70 million in 2014⁴ and the Foreign Exchange Earnings (FEE’s) from tourism sector in 2014 were recorded to be 1,20,083 crore rupees with a growth of 11.5 per cent⁵.

Tourism provides employment to around 12.36 per cent of people across the length and breadth of our country in different sectors of retail, construction, manufacturing and telecommunications as well as directly in tourism companies⁶. These jobs employ a large proportion of women and young people.

Tourism has rightly been described as ‘Smokeless industry’ (Naik, 2008)⁷. It has a tremendous potential to contribute economically, socially and environmentally in the sustainable development in both developed and developing nations. Its comparative advantage in the startup and running cost can be low compared to various other industries. However, it is vulnerable to International /National crisis and economic recession. The aftermath of September, 11, 2001 terrorist attack combined with the global economic slowdown produced for the first time, in many decades, reduction of international tourists in 2001 compared to the previous years.

Moreover, tourism has also a direct relationship with a wide range of infrastructural services like ease of travel, roads, railheads, airports and ports as well as basic infrastructural services required by hotels, restaurants, shops, malls and recreation centers. In fact, it is the combination of tourism and good infrastructure that strengthens the environmental and socio-economic dimension. Thus, it is important to balance any decision to develop an area for tourism against the need to preserve fragile environments. However, once a decision to develop an area for tourism has been taken, then good infrastructure will be essential to sustain the quality, economic viability and growth of tourism.

Tourism research encompasses several fields of specialization like geography, economics, regional planning, tourism management, environmental and ecological

4 Retrieved from Knoema.com/atlas/India/topics/tourism/Travel-and-Tourism-total-contribution-to-GDP/total-contribution-to-GDP-oercent-share

5 Ministry of Tourism, Government of India. Retrieved from Tourism.gov.in/annual-report-2014-2015.

6 Ministry of Tourism, Government of India. Retrieved from Tourism.nic.in/E-Book_MOT/HTML page.htm# features/55.

7 Naik, A. B. (2008). Tourism Potential in Ecological Zones and Future Prospects of Tourism in Kashmir Valley. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, Department of Geography, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh-India.

sciences etc. However, the basic aim of all the researches is to examine the tourist industry from various viewpoints. The objectives of the research remain characteristically different consisting of evaluation and organization of resources, flow analysis, socio-economic impact, environmental consciousness and the sustainable management of tourism. The 20^th century tourism research has stressed mainly on highlighting the tourism potential of various areas, so that tourists can be attracted in large numbers. However, the focus of attention got subsequently shifted towards measuring the economic gains of tourism.

The present study is focused on assessing the uneven pattern of tourist arrivals to the

‘Paradise of Earth’ (The Valley of Kashmir) and the factors responsible for this unevenness. It has also tried to enquire into the suitable prospects and possibilities of tourism that can be developed and promoted in this region. Besides, it has paid a way to explore the wetlands and water bodies which are present in the length and breadth of the Jhelum Basin of Kashmir Valley so that these ecosystems can be utilized for the boosting up of the tourism of this naturally very beautiful and attractive landscape.

These wetlands are the vital link between land and water. They are the corridors through which life evolved, prospered, came ashore and conquered terrestrial areas.

They are the ‘kidneys of Biosphere’ as well and the last refuge to a wide variety of flora and fauna. Human beings are invariably intertwined with these ecosystems in the evolution of their civilization. More than three quarters of food required for mankind is still being derived from wetlands in the form of rice and fish. Thus, a key to the future sustenance of human societies lies in the sustainable management and wise use of these highly productive ecosystems (Moraingleima, 2006)⁸.

An estimated 6 per cent of the land surface of the earth is wetlands (Bazilavich et.

al.,1971)⁹. They are distributed in all the climate zones of the earth except Antarctica.

In India, these are distributed in different geographical regions ranging from cold arid zone of Ladakh to wet Imphal, from the warm and arid zone of Gujarat and Rajasthan to the tropical monsoon based regions of central India and wet and humid regions of

8 Moirangleima, K. (2010). Sustainable Management of Wetlands-Central Valley of Manipur, B.

R. Publishing House: Delhi.

9 Bazilevich, N. I., Rodin, L. Ye., & Rozov, N. N. (1971). Geophysical aspects of Biological Productivity. Soviet Geography, 12: 293-317.

southern peninsula. Approximately, an area of 4.1 million hectares (0.44%) of India’s total area is under natural and man-made wetlands.

However, these water bodies are subjected to both natural as well as anthropogenic stresses which include rising sea level, erosion, sedimentation, eutrophication, weed infestation (natural), population pressure, urbanization, land use/ land cover dynamics and technological development (anthropogenic) etc. Around 50% of the world’s wetlands have been lost in the last century primarily through drainage for intensive agriculture, over grazing of cattle, over fishing, excessive hunting and poaching, urban development and water system regulation.

Wetlands are among the least protected ecosystems in the developing countries and India, the heavily populated country, is particularly vulnerable to their degradation and loss. There are thousands of lakes, ponds, marshes, lagoons, estuaries, backwaters and mangrove swamps that are vital to the country’s water needs, food production and biodiversity but environmental policies have largely failed to acknowledge their contribution.

Of the total area of Kashmir Valley, nearly 42,661 hectares (426.61 square kms.) of area is under wetlands¹⁰ and the total number of these small and large water bodies is 755. However, LISS-III data of 2012 shows the number of wetlands in Kashmir Valley to be 315 only¹¹.Almost all the natural wetlands, except few higher altitude ones, like Dal Lake, Wular Lake, Hokersar, Anchar ,Manasbal, Haigam and Shalbug etc. are located in and around Jhelum basin of Kashmir Valley. Whatever may be the number, these water bodies play an important role in physical, biological, ecological and economic security of this region but at the same time are under severe anthropogenic pressures and stresses. These highly productive and beneficial ecosystems are facing untold miseries of gradually becoming arid and dull lands as a result of senseless gluttonous exploitations of their invaluable natural resources. Thus, we must come forward and protect these masterpieces of nature that host a wide variety of plants, animals, insects, amphibians, reptiles, birds and fish and sustain large sections of population as well before it is too late.

10 National wetland Atlas: Jammu and Kashmir. (2010). Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India.

11 State Action Plan on Climate Change: Jammu and Kashmir (2014). Department of Ecology, Environment and Remote Sensing, Government of Jammu and Kashmir. p.141

 Significance of the Study

The present study entitled “Tourism and Management of Wetland Ecosystems in Kashmir Valley” has tried to make an attempt to enquire about one of the significant aspects of Tourism Industry (A phenomenon without which the development of Kashmir economy is incomplete and unimaginable) and thereby relate it with environmental aspects of the region by going through the intensive ecological, hydrological and environmental assessment of the five wetlands of Kashmir Valley (Dal, Wular, Anchar, Hokersar and Manasbal) located in the Jhelum Basin.

The spindle shaped valley of around 93 miles (150 Kilometers) long and 26 miles (40 Kilometers) wide constitutes 16 per cent area of Jammu and Kashmir State and 52.70 per cent of its total population size. The other two regions of Jammu and Ladakh constitute about 26 per cent and 58 per cent of the total area of state and 45.105 per cent and 2.187 per cent of its total population¹².

Kashmir Valley, famous for its natural beauty and grandeur as ‘Switzerland of the East’, is a land of salubrious climate, meandering rivers, lofty waterfalls, deep blue lakes, sweet springs and alpine forests surrounded by flowering meadows and picturesque snowcapped mountains ranges which makes it an ultimate tourism destination of the continent. Thus, in Kashmir Valley, tourism is seen as a key role player in socio economic development of the people. It is one of the largest job providers in the Valley and a crucial source of employment and income generation.

Tourism has its roots deeply grounded in historical past of Kashmir Valley. Right from the times of Mughals, this region has received travelers from almost every nook and corner of the world in large numbers. Thus, Nature has left no stone unturned in endowing this small mountain grit valley with every possible opportunity and facility for the development of tourism. However, this industry is still at crossroads in the Valley than its counterpart, Jammu. There is unequal distribution of both the number and frequency of tourists to all the three regions of Jammu and Kashmir State and the main reasons responsible for that have been assessed in the present study. Not only that but also the solutions to these political, socio-economic and environmental/ecological problems have also been suggested. In addition to it, various

12 Census of India. (2011). Office of the Registrar general and census commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India.

prospects for enhancing the canvas of tourism industry of this region have been provided.

Since, Kashmir Valley is a land of springs, lakes, waterfalls and rivers. Thus, the major water bodies of the valley have been assessed at micro level, their wide range of functions analyzed and their main problems and threats highlighted clearly so as to manage these wetlands in a sustainable manner and to develop them into sites of tourism attraction and potential. Once these presently deteriorated wetlands are brought to their state of good health, they will prove as ‘wealth lands’ by enhancing the income and employment opportunities of the people. Not only this, but also the level of infrastructure and overall development of the region will go up. This will prove as a major factor for building the peace in this politically dilapidated region.

 Objectives of the Study

The Valley of Kashmir is a unique geographical region enclosed with lofty mountain ranges from all its sides. Despite being a geographically isolated region, there exist innumerable opportunities for the development of tourism. However, tourism of Kashmir Valley has become victim to the undulations and disturbances of insurgency, political instability, infrastructural bottlenecks as well as poor socio-economic background of people. In order to bring this already derailed and negligent sector of economy on the track of development again, management and restoration of the major wetland ecosystems of the valley is looked up on as the last refuge. Thus, need of the hour is to preserve these wealth lands so as to develop tourism sector of the valley and the resultant socio-economic life of the residents as well.

The purpose of this study is to conduct an extensive study on the evolution of Kashmir Valley Tourism, its seasonal, yearly and decadal pattern of growth from the perspective of the foreign and domestic tourists as well as its future prospects and problems. Besides, a micro level intensive study of the five wetlands of Jhelum Basin of Kashmir Valley, two larger wetlands (Dal and Wular) and three smaller wetlands (Anchar, Hokersar and Manasbal) has also been conducted to examine their major problems and suggest remedial measures and management plans in order to save them from further loss and utilize them as a means of boosting up tourism of Kashmir Valley.

The present study has certain specific research objectives such as:

1. To conduct an extensive inquiry into the geographical aspects of the Kashmir Valley with a focus on its Drainage, Scenic beauty and Altitudinal zonation for the development of potential sites of tourism.

2. To assess the chronological evolution and development of Kashmir Valley Tourism as well as highlight the causes responsible for bringing doldrums in its path of smooth development.

3. To identify the motivating forces for Kashmir Valley tourism.as well as its Prospects and Problems.

4. To examine the nature, characteristics and distribution of wetlands and their classification in Kashmir Valley.

5. To conduct micro level assessment of the origin, catchment area, morphometry, hydrological regimes, water chemistry, land use/ land cover dynamics and biodiversity of Dal Lake, Wular Lake and three smaller lakes of Anchar, Hokersar and Manasbal.

6. To analyze the socio-economic conditions of the sampled settlements (villages) located in and around the five sampled wetlands of Jhelum Basin of Kashmir Valley.

7. To assess the functions of these wetland ecosystems- physical/hydrological (flood mitigation, ground water recharge and discharge, water purification, protection of shoreline and storms, global warming mitigation), biological (floral diversity and vital habitats), economic and ecological (food, fishery, irrigation, tourism and recreation, education and research).

8. To assess the natural (eutrophication, erosion, weed infestation) as well as anthropogenic (encroachment, pollution, population pressure, modification of catchment area) problems faced by these ecosystems.

9. To suggest suitable measures for the management of these water bodies through ecosystem conservation (catchment conservation, water management, biodiversity management, tourism development), Sustainable Resource

Development and Livelihood Improvement (fisheries development, economic utilization of aquatic vegetation, livelihood improvement), Institutional Development (establishment of development authorities, capacity building, monitoring and evaluation) and Community Awareness and Participation (communication, education and public awareness, community participation and celebration of wetland days).

 Research Hypotheses

The present study shall make an attempt to test the following hypotheses:

1. Whether the growth and development of tourism in Kashmir Valley has been victim of insurgency and unrest prevalent in the region since 1990.

2. Whether the huge potential of tourism development lies still untapped and unutilized in Kashmir Valley.

3. Whether Wetland Ecosystems have a great importance in terms of ecological, social and economic benefits.

4. Whether Wetlands of Kashmir Valley are inhabited by marginalized people of poor socio-economic background.

5. Whether with the increasing population and associated demands, the problems of wetlands are ever mounting.

6. Whether newly identified Wetlands can be utilized as potential sites for the development of Tourism

 Data Base

The study is based on both primary and secondary sources of data. Primary sources of data were collected through:

1. Survey of all the existing major tourist spots of Kashmir Valley like Mughal Gardens, Tulip Garden, Botanical Garden, Pahalgam, Gulmarg, Sonamarg, Aharbal, Kokernag, Verinag, and Achabal.

2. Survey of two major Wetlands (Dal Lake and Wular Lake) and three minor wetlands (Anchar, Hokersar and Manasbal) of Kashmir Valley.

3. Survey of the selected settlements/villages located around and dependent on these water bodies.

4. Survey of the sampled households located in the selected villages.

5. Data was collected through Questionnaire interviews put to the Tourists (domestic and foreign), Fishermen, House boat owners, Farmers, Government officials and Local people. Field work was carried during years 2014 and 2015.In order to get accurate information, the selected villages and the sampled households were visited frequently.

Secondary sources of data were collected from various government offices like:

1. Department of Tourism, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir.

2. Lakes and Waterways Development Authority (LAWDA), Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir.

3. Wular and Manasbal Development Authority (WUMDA), Manasbal, Jammu and Kashmir.

4. Warden Office Hokersar, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir.

5. Department of Ecology, Environment and Remote Sensing, Government of Jammu and Kashmir, Srinagar.

6. Pahalgam Development Authority, Pahalgam, Anantnag, Jammu and Kashmir.

7. Year wise Statistical Digests and Economic Survey Reports (2006, 2012, 2014), Government of Jammu and Kashmir.

8. Decadal Census Reports, Census Office, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir.

9. Allama Iqbal Library, University of Kashmir, Srinagar., Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University., Seminar Library, Department of Geography, A.M.U., Library, Department of Geography, University of Kashmir., Library, Department of Geology, University of Kashmir.

10. Various Journals, Atlases, Guides, Reports, Magazines and Research Papers published monthly, bi-annually and annually by a number of organizations and publishing houses.

 Research Methodology

Following research methodology was employed:

A systematic comprehensive survey of 14 major tourist spots of Kashmir Valley was carried out in which 150 foreign tourists and 300 domestic tourists from different age groups, source regions and socio-economic backgrounds were randomly sampled.

Mapping of the Wetlands of Jhelum Basin of Kashmir valley was done with the help of field surveys and SOI Topographic Maps (43 K/5, 43 K/6, 43 K/7 43 K/9, 43 K/10, 43 K/11, 43 K/12, 43 K/13, 43 K/14, 43 K/15, 43 J/11, 43 J/12, 43 J/15, 43 J/16, 43 N/3, 43 N/4, 43 N/7, 43 N/8, 43 O/1, 43 O/2, 43 O/3, 43 O/5, 43 O/6, 43 O/7) of 1969.

 Preparation of Questionnaire

The data was collected with the help of an ellaborate questionnaire which was

The data was collected with the help of an ellaborate questionnaire which was