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Taboos, according to Shishima (1999: 3) are a cultural phenomenon, which help in maintaining moral standards in traditional societies. Since the deities are the custodians of morality in traditional societies, taboos are obeyed. To run away from sin, most Africans do not deviate from these taboos. Among the Tiv of central Nigeria, there are different taboos concerning sex, food, death and so on. Some of the prohibitions or taboos are as follows:

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3.4.1 Religious taboos

These are prohibitions that deal with ones practice of his or her religious duties or obligations. Olajubu (2006: 240) citing instances of religious taboos in Yoruba land states that:

(i) Palm kernel oil is a taboo to Esu. It must not be taken near his shrine to avoid the wrath of Esu-laalu.

(ii) Palm wine is a taboo to Orisa-nla. It must not be taken near his shrine neither should worshippers consume it to avoid incurring the wrath of the divinity.

(iii) Medicines used for wickedness are taboos to Soponna, the small pox divinity.

(iv) Nobody is allowed to hunt, fish or cultivate land in the Osogbo grove violation of which will result in grievous consequences.

(v) No worshipper of Oya, a finer divinity, must eat ram meat to avoid death.

(vi) Osun worshippers must not eat fresh fish from the Osun River to avoid destroying the children of Osun.

3.4.2 Cultural Taboos

In African traditional religion, like most religions of the world culture is an integral part of religion. The two are intertwined. Cultural taboos are prohibitions that deal with the everyday living of a particular people of society. Some of these taboos regulate how we eat, what pregnant women should not do, what the royalty should not do, prohibitions about sex and so on.

Cultural taboos emanate from particular peoples’ worldview, which through a divinity or deity imposes prohibitions to regulate life according to the peoples’ beliefs and worldview.

3.4.3 Sex Taboos

These are prohibitions that regulate the use of the male and female reproductive system. Shishima (1995: 5) outlining the sex taboos in Tiv land states that, it is a taboo:

(i) To have sex with a menstruating woman

183 (ii) To have sex in the bush, field or farm even with one’s wife (iii) To have sex with a virgin girl before marriage

(iv) To have sex with a close relative (incest)

Among the Yoruba, Olajubu (2006: 240) lists other sex prohibitions as follows.

(i) Sexual intercourse immediately before worship is a taboo for both priests and worshippers.

(ii) No one should have sexual relationship with a pregnant woman who is heavy to avoid perennial poverty.

(iii) It is a taboo for a pregnant woman to have sex with another man apart from her husband. The child will be born dumb until the woman confesses her sins and proper cleansing rituals take place.

(iv) It is a taboo for a mother to resume sex after delivery before the child is weaned; this will hinder the growth of the child.

(v) It is taboo to have sex on the farmland, which is the sacred earth (Ile ogere afokogeri). The source of livelihood, it will defile the land.

3.4.4 Death Taboos

These prohibitions have to do with the departed loved ones, their corpse, grave and ceremonies. Among the Tiv of central Nigeria, Shishima (1995: 5) lists the following prohibitions.

(i) A woman cannot see a grave while it is being prepared until the person is buried.

(ii) A woman is not to see a corpse on its way for burial.

(iii) A woman cannot kill a dog nor walk across its blood.

(iv) To mourn the death of one of the twins.

Among the Igbo, Metuh (1983: 80) lists some death prohibitions:

(i) To bury a woman with an unborn child in her womb.

(ii) To bury those who died during the month sacred to Ala.

(iii) For a woman to go outside the compound during mourning period.

(iv) To mourn those who die of infectious diseases especially small pox, leprosy or elephantiasis of the scrotum.

3.4.5 Food Taboos

These are prohibitions that regulate our eating and eating habits. Metuh (1985: 8) states further the following food prohibitions.

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(i) To eat horses – certain parts of the internal chest organs may cause madness.

(ii) To eat edu (civet cat) among the Nri people and ewi (bush rat) among the Nnewi people. Other Igbo towns have their own animal prohibitions.

(iii) To eat food prepared or touched by a monstrous woman.

(iv) Nobody may eat new yams until sacrifices are made to the ancestors and Ala. Breaching this was punished by one year exile and sacrifice of a ram to Ala and to ancestors.

Shishima (1999: 5) lists other food prohibitions among the Tiv as follows.

(i) To sing while eating

(ii) To eat food prepared or touched by a menstruating woman that is for adult males

(iii) To eat eagle (tsoughul), hawk (azembe) and owl (Ivungu) among the Tiv of Kwande in Benue State

(iv) To eat eggs, especially by women (v) To eat meat partly used for sacrifice

Other towns have their own animal prohibitions. Violation of which may cause madness.

3.4.6 Royal Taboos

These are prohibitions that surround the conduct of social etiquette of the royalty that is, the king or queen, prince or princess and the likes.

Olajubu (2006: 241) lists prohibitions classified as royal.

(i) Kings in Yoruba land must not eat publicly because they are second in command to the “Orisa”.

(ii) It is a taboo for a king to see or touch a corpse, such a king becomes defiled until cleansing is ritually done.

(iii) It is forbidden for kings to see the hair on the newborn baby’s head when he or she is born.

(iv) A king is forbidden to curse except in rare and deserving cases, the duty of the king is to bless all the time. This is to ensure and maintain the well-being of the society.

(v) A king must not see the inside of his crown, to avoid death. This explains why the crown is placed on the king’s head from the back of his head.

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3.4.7 Taboos for Pregnant Women

Olajubu (2006: 241) lists prohibitions for pregnant women in Yoruba land as follows.

(i) A pregnant woman is forbidden to walk in the hot sun or at night to avoid having her baby exchanged with an evil spirit.

(ii) It is forbidden to flog or beat a pregnant woman for any reason to avoid the marks of the cain showing on the baby’s body at birth.

(iii) It is taboo for pregnant women to eat snails to avoid giving birth to children who spit all the time.

(iv) A pregnant woman must not sleep on her belly or else the baby will die.

(v) It is forbidden for a pregnant woman to sit or stand at the doorpost of a house to avoid difficulties during delivery.

3.4.8 Taboos for Mothers

(i) A baby must not knowingly or by accident drop from the mother’s back else she will have seven spouses, each would die after the other until the seventh time before it will stop.

(ii) An infant is forbidden to grow the upper jaw milk teeth before the lower jaw milk teeth, because it is a sign of authority.

(iii) It is a taboo for a mother to curse her child touching her breast and, or private part, because such a cure is irrevocable even by the mother herself.

(iv) It is a taboo to abuse, ridicule or beat one’s mother; any child that does that never prospers.

3.5 The Role of Taboos in African Traditional Religion and