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In this study, mechanical abrasion was achieved by pumice stone in the washing machine.
The addition of pumice stone in cellulase treatments accelerates more mechanical abrasion and allowing enzymatic hydrolysis quicker which affects on the fabric properties. Cavaco-Paulo et al. [30] have pointed out the importance of mechanical agitation on cellulose hydrolysis in enzymatic treatments.
Liu et al. [64] reported that mechanical agitation depends on rotation speed, liquor ratio, load size and processing time. In this study, stone washing effects in presence of enzyme on fabric properties were determined. A combination of high level of abrasion by pumice stone and enzyme action may generate fibrillar material on the fabric surface reported by Cavaco- Paulo et al. [30] Pumice stone gives a used look appearance on denim distinctly.
In this part of study, mechanical abrasion was achieved by pumice stone in the rotating cylinder of the washing machine at 30 rpm. The effect of pumice stone with various concentrations (10-70%) (owg) on the properties of denim apparels was determined and is shown in Tables 3.13-3.16.
Table 3.13. Effect of pumice stone-enzyme washing on the tensile strength of denim apparel in warp and weft directions
Pumice stone, (%)
Loss in tensile strength in warp direction, (%)
Loss in tensile strength in weft direction, (%) Acid enzyme Neutral enzyme Mixed enzyme Acid enzyme Neutral enzyme Mixed enzyme 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 14.6 9.7 7.3 11.0 11.0 9.5 20 18.3 14.6 13.0 16.1 14.7 12.5 30 22.3 17.8 15.8 24.2 22.0 19.8 40 27.2 24.3 20.7 30.1 29.4 28.6 50 29.3 25.2 23.5 33.8 31.6 30.8 60 33.3 26.4 25.2 34.5 33.0 32.3 70 34.9 30.0 28.4 34.5 33.8 33.8
Table 3.14. Effect of pumice stone-enzyme washing on the fabric weight and color shade of denim apparel
Pumice stone, (%)
Fabric weight loss, (%) Color shade loss, (%) Acid enzyme Neutral enzyme Mixed enzyme Acid enzyme Neutral enzyme Mixed enzyme 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 2.3 1.8 1.8 30 20 10 20 3.4 2.6 2.9 30 20 20 30 4.2 3.4 3.9 40 30 40
Table 3.14. (Continued)
Pumice stone, (%)
Fabric weight loss, (%) Color shade loss, (%) Acid enzyme Neutral enzyme Mixed enzyme Acid enzyme Neutral enzyme Mixed enzyme 40 4.5 3.9 4.5 50 40 50 50 4.9 4.5 4.5 60 50 60 60 5.2 4.9 4.9 60 60 60 70 5.5 4.9 5.2 60 60 60
Table 3.15. Effect of pumice stone-enzyme washing on the stiffness of denim apparel in warp and weft directions
Pumice stone, (%)
Loss in stiffness in warp direction, (%) Loss in stiffness in weft direction, (%) Acid enzyme Neutral enzyme Mixed enzyme Acid enzyme Neutral enzyme Mixed enzyme 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 31.1 28.9 33.3 9.3 6.2 6.2 20 37.7 35.5 40.0 12.5 9.3 12.5 30 44.4 40.0 46.6 15.6 12.5 15.6 40 46.6 44.4 46.6 15.6 12.5 15.6 50 46.6 44.4 46.6 18.7 18.7 18.7 60 48.8 46.6 51.1 18.7 18.7 18.7 70 48.8 48.8 51.1 18.7 18.7 18.7
Table 3.16. Effect of pumice stone-enzyme washing on the water absorption of denim apparel
Pumice stone, (%) Water absorption, (%)
Acid enzyme Neutral enzyme Mixed enzyme
0.0 0 0 0 10 15.8 17.5 16.7 20 19.8 20.6 20.6 30 25.4 22.2 26.1 40 26.1 23.8 26.9 50 26.9 25.4 27.7 60 27.7 25.4 28.5 70 27.7 25.4 28.5
The tensile strength evolution after stone-enzyme washing can be seen in Table 3.13. On washing at various concentrations of pumice stones the tensile strength decreased due to the rubbing action provided by the pumice stones. The weave of the fabric used in this study is a 3/1 twill, so the effect of abrasion is more concentrated on warp yarns than weft yarns. When
garments are washed with stone, the surface yarns are aggressively affected by the stone rub action thereby underside yarn surfaces can be retained away from the rub directly. As a result, warp yarns are more affected by stone in acid enzyme than neutral and mixed enzymes. When the pumice stone and the mixture enzyme are combined in the washing solution, the fiber’s degradation become more important and causes an intensive increase of hydrolysis, which effects on fabric tensile strength. Klahorst et al. [31] reported that cellulase hydrolyses the cellulose, yielding long chain cellulose polymer to a short chain polymer. The hydrolysis of cellulose link breaks the molecule in several pieces, which decompose fiber, consequently the tensile strength are greatly reduced. It is observed that, at low concentration of pumice stone (10%), the decreases in tensile strength were 14.6%, 9.7% and 7.3% in warp for acid, neutral and mixed enzymes. However, at high concentration of pumice stone (70%), high reduction in strength of denim was obtained for the case of acid enzyme than the neutral and mixed enzyme.
The cellulase attacks and mechanical agitation may have caused more damage on the fabric surface by cutting the cellulose chains. Acid enzyme with pumice stone (70%) caused the highest strength loss (34.9%), whereas the neutral enzyme (30%) and mixed enzyme (28.4%) had less effect on the strength properties. In practice such high strength loss values are not acceptable.
Table 3.14 shows the impact of pumice stone on the weight loss of denim apparels. High weight loss of 5.5% was obtained with 70% pumice stone for acid enzyme, compared to the weight losses of 4.9% for neutral enzyme and 5.2% for mixed enzyme. Treatments showed that the mechanical action by pumice stone caused higher weight loss of fabric. It can be seen from the Table 3.14 that the color shade decreased after they were treated to acid, neutral, and mixed enzymes at higher pumice stone concentrations particularly from 30 -70%. From the Table 3.14, it can be observed that the decrease in color shade at 10-70% was higher for acid enzyme than for neutral enzyme and pumice stone with acid, neutral, and mixed enzyme caused 10 - 60% color loss.
Table 3.15 shows the losses in stiffness of denim garment. It can be seen from the Table 3.15 that pumice stone with acid cellulase caused 31-49% stiffness loss, neutral cellulase caused 29-49% loss and mixed cellulases caused 33-51% loss. The stiffness loss is highest in mixed cellulase than acid and neutral cellulases. From the Table 3.15, it can clearly be differentiated each value from the others due to the differences in amino acid residues in cellulases and abrasion by pumice stone.
Table 3.16 shows the effect of pumice stone concentration on water absorption. The water absorption is increased when washing was performed by pumice stone with acid, neutral and mixed cellulases due to the loosening of surface fibers by the abrasion of pumice stones. The water absorption increased approximately 15-26% at 10-30% concentration of pumice stones. Water absorption does not cause any further increase when the pumice stone concentration increased from 50 to 70% for all the three cases.
3.5. SEM Analysis
The changes in surface appearance of the denim apparels after enzyme washing and stone-enzyme washing were examined by scanning electron microscope (Model 3400N, Hitachi, Japan). The surface appearances of the untreated denim samples were also examined by SEM. The surface appearances as well as denim apparel properties are affected by enzyme washing and stone-enzyme washing. Figure 3.1 shows the SEM image of untreated cotton denim apparel. The Figure shows parallel ridges and no fibrils (projecting fibers) and ruptures visible in the image, because the yarns are coated with size materials and projecting fibers are not visible on surface.
The Figure 3.2 shows the Scanning Electron Microscopy photograph of enzyme treated cotton denim apparel. The enzyme treatment was carried out according to the method described in this chapter with an enzyme concentration of 2.0% (owg) acid cellulase at 550C
for 40 min. After enzyme treatment, a clear increase of cracks, disorients and wrinkle surface was observed compare to unwashed sample.
Figure 3.3 shows stone-enzyme treated sample and damaged surface in the image are due to fiber degradation by hydrolysis and abrasion by pumice stone in the washing machine during processing.
As observed in Figure 3.3 there are more cracks on the surface of fibers. This is caused by cellulase washing of cotton denim garments and pumice stone enhances more cracks on surface.
Figure 3.2. Scanning electron microscopy image of enzyme treated denim sample.
Figure 3.3. Scanning electron microscopy image of stone-enzyme treated denim sample (hydrolysed and damaged form).
3.6. FM Analysis
Figures 3.5-3.6 shows the changes in physical appearance on the yarn surface of denim apparel after washing with cellulase enzyme and stone-enzyme treatment which were observed by fluorescence microscope (FM) (model IX71, Olympus, Japan). Figure 3.4 shows the FM image of untreated warp yarn.
Figure 3.4. Fluorescence microscopy image of untreated warp yarn.
Figure 3.6. Fluorescence microscopy image of stone-enzyme treated warp yarn.
As the yarns are dyed and coated with size materials, the surface is smooth and fibrils or projecting fibers are not visible on surface. Figure 3.5 shows the fluorescence microscopy photograph of warp yarn treated with the 2.0% concentration of acid cellulase at 550C for 40 min. It is observed that the yarn surface is somewhat damaged by the action of cellulase enzyme and the extent of damage is increased with the increasing of enzyme concentration. The Figure 3.6 shows the FM photograph of warp yarn of denim fabric treated with 30% pumice stone combined with 2.0% (owg) acid cellulase at 550C for 40 min.
It is observed that the yarn surface is highly damaged by the rubbing action of pumice stone and the extent of damage is increased with the increasing of stone concentration in washing.
C
ONCLUSIONAn experimental study on the effect of chemicals in denim apparel washing has been studied by enzyme and stone-enzyme treatments. The works reported in this research are basically dependent on parameters namely: (i) chemical concentrations (ii) treatment temperatures (iii) times and (iv) pumice stone concentrations. Cellulase enzymes and pumice stone-enzyme washing are important chemicals in the apparel washing industry for processing denim ready-made apparels. Cellulase enzymes provide an ecological way to treat cotton denim apparels.
Although cellulases have been used for biofinishing cotton in textile industry since the 1980s, many varieties of cellulases are still used in textile processes today and recently used in denim washing industries. Pumice stones mixed with cellulases have been used for biostoning denim to get distressed worn look.
A problem associated with treatments with cellulases and mixtures with pumice stone is that the treated garments exhibit high strength and weight losses. Pumice stones mixed with cellulase enzyme have been used for denim washing to get more worn look appearance.
The study has been confined to the modification of denim apparels with chemicals in washing processes. In case of enzymatic treatment the effect of cellulase enzyme on the fabric properties as well as the characteristics of denim apparels in washing process with the introduction of parameters has been determined.
In case of enzymatic treatment with pumice stone the effect of pumice stone on the fabric properties as well as the characteristics of denim apparels has also been determined in this research.
On the basis of the analysis the following conclusions have been drawn:
i) The results obtained provide new information on the effects of acid, neutral and mixture of acid and neutral cellulases on denim apparels. The use of 2.0g/L mixed cellulase was found to be the most effective in preventing strength and weight loss, determined the most positive results with specific washing effects. In addition, the results obtained with defined cellulase mixtures provided useful knowledge for designing new production. It was also shown that neutral cellulase improves water absorption. Acid cellulase is the most effective at removing color from denim fabrics. Treatment temperature, time and concentrations of cellulase had a major impact on enzymatic treatments.
ii) Pumice stone has influence on the properties of denim apparels. The results obtained in enzymatic washing with pumice stone provide new information on the effects of pumice stone in acid, neutral and mixture of acid and neutral cellulases on denim apparels. The use of 30% pumice stone in cellulase washing for all cases was found to be the most effective in preventing strength and weight loss, determined the most positive results with washing effects.
For optimal performance in denim apparel washing, the process parameters should be selected on the basis of fabric type and quality in order to achieve the desired finishing effect with minimum negative impact. Pumice stone in cellulase treatments gives a used look appearance on denim apparel distinctly and the properties of denim fabrics are varied depending on the amount of pumice stone used. It is possible to suggest that any or all of the parameters in both enzyme washing and stone-enzyme washing methods are responsible to damage denim apparel through excessive hydrolysis/unwanted abrasion by pumice stone and changes the values of denim properties. The washing condition should be predetermined for optimum result.
A
CKNOWLEDGMENTSOne of the authors research work was supported by the NSICT Fellowship under the Ministry of Science, Information and Communication Technology of The People’s Republic of Bangladesh.
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Chapter 3