A concept, evident from the review of literature on Chinese students at Western HEIs, and referred to in Section 3.3.8. relates to how Chinese students, and others from overseas, can be perceived by teachers and HEI management. Referred to as a ‘deficit’ view, its stance is to see overseas students studying in Western HEIs as a ‘problem’ or lacking in the academic values and qualities needed to succeed at a Western university. It can be argued that this perspective, when adopted by HEI staff and management, is unhelpful in fostering inclusive and engaging education. Ryan and Slethaug (2010) discuss this noting that a large portion of the literature on Chinese learners has been written by Western lecturers who work with students who have come into an unfamiliar educational culture and study in an unfamiliar language. The authors state that this literature focusses on the ‘deficits’ in the overseas students when
comparing them to the supposed academic values and skills of Western students. Ryan (2002) finds a sudden increase in CHC students arriving at Australian HEIs generates a mix of responses from university academics ranging from those with a positive view of diversity, as route to enhancing the educational experience for all, to others who present a negative and even hostile response, arising from factors such as increased work pressures. The findings of authors such as Samuelowicz (1987), Barron (2006) and Bartlett and Fischer (2011) identify the (mostly negative) opinions held by local students and teaching staff about increased numbers of Chinese students
on their programmes. Negative perceptions about Chinese and other overseas students in Western HEI contexts are identified by others including Tran (2013), who finds opinions of those teaching of Chinese learners include a view that they are
passive learners, while Cortazzi et al. (2009) highlight negative metaphors (‘buckets as receivers, regurgitators as rote-memorisers, cash cows as fee-payers’, p.127) used by Western teachers to describe their Chinese students. Smith and Zhou (2009) highlight a variety of negative perceptions of Chinese students held by Western educators including an apparent functional approach to learning (not learning for its own sake), a lack of academic curiosity, a seemingly passive approach in the classroom, a perceived lack of motivation to integrate with other students and difficulties in achieving at
narrative or text based subjects. Earlier, Biggs (2003) drew attention to some prevailing perceptions held by lecturers on their international students. These perceptions
included that students are too dependent on their teachers, are uncritical of subject matter, use rote learning frequently, mistakenly plagiarise and are unaware of the need for and styles of academic writing. Some perceptions have been dismissed as
stereotypes (Biggs 2003) while taking a view that there are a variety of cultural related problems experienced by students and teachers alike.
While the review of the literature has highlighted a significant level of discussion of perceived ‘deficits’ in Chinese and other overseas students, there is an overall lack of critique of this point of view and a lack of response to what, if appropriate, can be done to cater, address and support students. Few questions are asked about the validity of the stereotypes made in relation to Chinese students and thus, the debate about how best HEIs might best be inclusive in serving the needs of all students, is at risk of being
founded on false premises. Some literature, such as Heng (2016) and Ryan and Slethaug (2010), highlight this and refer to a ‘surplus’ perspective. Earlier publications express this in other ways - for example Ninnes et al. (1999) write of cultural proficiency theories of Chinese learners. Such work identifies factors such as the skills and
adaptability of Chinese students, positive aspects inherent in claimed CHC learning cultures and the benefits such students bring to Western educational settings.
Referring to ‘the paradox of the Chinese learner’ Biggs (1996, p.45) and Louie (2005) highlight the view that Chinese learners succeed in learning despite what some Western educators and writers perceive as imperfect teaching and learning practices. Yet, while such authors identify surplus theories as an important challenge to the deficiency
theories there remains risk of stereotyping albeit in a way which emphasises what might be considered as positive characteristics. Ryan and Slethaug (2010) cite Lee (1996), who depicts Chinese learners as accommodating, assiduous, conscientious and deep learners with high levels of respect for education. While these might be seen as positive traits, depending on the context, it can be argued that this view is also a
stereotype. Not all Chinese students exhibit such uniform characteristics and Ryan and Slethaug (2010) suggest that characterising groups of students in such ways may be unhelpful for those that do not match the characterisation depicted.
3.3.10. Key issues arising for the study
This section has reflected on the literature investigating Chinese and CHC education and learning cultures and identified the debates and discussion surrounding perceived characteristics of Chinese and CHC learners. The section has also considered
literature which makes comparisons between perceived Chinese and CHC and Western learning cultural traits. The literature generates questions in relation to this DBA study in terms of how, if at all, or the extent to which, such factors are features of, or affect, the learning experience of the Chinese participants of this DBA research while studying on a Scottish accounting degree programme. Initial themes identified for the analysis of data and to seek to answer the questions raised from the review of literature have been defined in this Section (Section 3.3.) and shown in the conceptual framework in Figure 5. The themes identified are: Chinese (including CHC) education and learning cultures; Western education and learning cultures; English language; Specialised accounting vocabulary; Motivations and expectations about overseas study; Independent learning; Collegiate/collective learning; Group work; Professionally accredited accounting
subjects; Numbers versus language; and, Teacher student relationships.
Having considered the literatures on CHC learners, education cultures in China and Western countries the next section narrow the scope to reflect upon literature of Chinese learners’ experiences in Western educational contexts.