DISCUSIÓN exploradora con citorreducción subóptima de ovario

I conducted a comprehensive search for published research that examined the association between childhood and adolescent risk factors and persistent offending. Publications were included if they met the following seven criteria: (1) high quality research findings were published in a peer reviewed journal, government report, or book; (2) persistent offenders were identified by some measure of offending (e.g., official convictions, arrests, or

self-reported offending); (3) a group of offenders were identified as either ‘persistent’, ‘chronic’, ‘early starters’, ‘life-course persistent’, ‘habitual’, or ‘career criminals’; (4) authors did not acknowledged that ‘chronic’, ‘early starters’, ‘life-course persistent’, ‘habitual’, or ‘career criminal’ offenders were conceptually distinct from persistent offenders; (5) quantitative analysis was used to examine the link between risk factors and persistent offenders when non-offenders were the comparison group; (6) childhood and adolescent risk factors were measured before subjects were 18 years of age, and; (7) the study was published between January 1st, 1990 to February 1st, 2017.

Publications that included the following search terms in the title or abstract were flagged for further inspection: (persist* OR chronic* OR life-course* OR chronic OR habit* OR career* OR early OR frequent*) AND (offend* OR crim*) AND (child* OR adolescent* OR teenag* OR early life OR boy* OR girl* OR early* OR risk* OR outcome*). Additional searches were conducted for studies that did not have the previous search terms in the title or abstract, but used the Group-Based Trajectory Model (GBTM) to identify offenders. The databases examined were ProQuest, Web of Science, PubMed, Google Scholar, and Criminal Justice Abstracts. A total of 208 eligible publications were found based on their titles and abstract, and 40 of these met all seven criteria for inclusion. Fifty-four groups of persistent offenders identified by 29 different operationalisations were found in the 40 included publications. A complete list of these studies, how they defined and identified persistent offenders, their main findings, and the data sets used, are provided in Table 21 of the Appendix.

3.3.1 Categories of persistent offenders

The 54 groups of persistent offenders were partitioned into six categories based on how they were originally defined and operationalised. These categories are: low-level Group-

Based Trajectory (low-level GBT); high-level Group-Based Trajectory (high-level GBT); offending before and during adulthood; offending over multiple life stages; an early onset of offending; and the most frequent offenders. Table 2 details the number of groups of persistent offenders belonging to each category, and how these groups were assigned based on their original identification criteria.

Table 2: Categorisation of persistent offender groups. Category of Persistent

Offenders (N = 54)

Inclusion Criteria Example Operationalisations Low-level GBT (n = 12) Identified by GBTM,

and assigned to the longest trajectory with a low-rate of offending.

(1) Low-level chronic trajectory (Piquero et al., 2012)

(2) Low-rate persister (Day et al., 2012)

High-level GBT (n = 8) Identified by GBTM, and assigned to the longest trajectory with a high-rate of offending.

(1) High-rate chronic (Piquero et al., 2012)

(2) High-rate persister (Day et al., 2012)

Offending before and during adulthood (n = 15)

Offending at two time points – once before and after the cut-off age for adulthood.

(1) Convicted before and at/after the age of 21 years (Farrington, Ttofi, & Coid, 2009)

(2) Convicted before the age of 21 and again after the age of 29 (Jolliffe et al., 2017a)

Offending over multiple life stages (n = 7)

Offending at three or more separate time points or life stages across the life-course.

(1) Offend at least once before age 13, between age 13 to 18, and again after the age of 18 (Bellair, McNulty, & Piquero, 2014)

(2) A registered offence at least once every decade from the age of seven to 60 (Laub & Sampson, 2003)

An early onset of offending

(n = 5)

One or more offences during childhood or adolescence.

(1) A reported crime before the age of 14 years (Tibbetts & Piquero, 1999) (2) Offending twice before the age of 16 (Lobley, Smith, & Haines, 2012)

The most frequent offenders

(n = 7)

A high number of offences committed.

(1) Committed 15 or more offences before the age of 15 years (McGloin & Stickle, 2011)

(2) Five per cent most frequent offenders (Piquero et al., 2007)

3.3.2 Childhood and adolescent risk factor groups

Over 150 measures of various childhood and adolescent risk factors were examined by the studies included in this review. To help organise this information, these measures were partitioned into 17 risk factor groups. A description of these groups, and some of the measures they include, are detailed below.

Table 3. Childhood and adolescent risk factor groups and included measures. Childhood and Adolescent

Risk Factor Groups Description

Example of Included Measures Low socioeconomic status Measures of low social class and

economic disadvantage.

Low family income, poor housing quality, and parental occupation status.

Criminogenic environments

Crime related social and environmental risk factors outside of the immediate family.

Delinquent peers, high crime neighbourhoods, and gang involvement.

Family risk factors Risk factors pertaining to the family structure.

Weak family attachments, large family size, and family conflict.

Parental risk factors Risk factors directly attributed to parental characteristics.

Convicted parent, low parental education, and parental substance abuse. Dysfunctional parenting Poor parental upbringing

practices.

Poor childrearing, harsh and erratic parental discipline, low interest in the child. Prenatal risk factors Negative prenatal maternal risk

factors.

Maternal prenatal alcohol, smoking, and drug use.

Child abuse Instances of serious abuse and

neglect towards the child.

Child abuse, and neglect.

Poor schooling Indicators of poor academic

performance and experiences.

Low school performance, truancy, and low school motivation.

Institutionalised care Reported situations where the child has been displaced into outside home care.

Juvenile detention and foster care.

Behavioural abnormalities Abnormal behaviours that are not strictly antisocial or delinquent.

Attention difficulties, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Antisocial behaviour Behaviours that are direct

manifestations of antisocial conduct.

Conduct problems, aggression, and troublesomeness. Poor cognitive functioning Indicators of intellectual and

cognitive dysfunctions.

Neuropsychological deficits, low IQ, and reading

difficulties. Psychopathic features Symptoms of psychopathy or

un-empathetic behaviour towards others.

Low ability to feel guilt and high scores on the

Psychopathy Checklist. Poor mental health Symptoms or signs of

personality disorders or mental illnesses.

Symptoms of anxiety, depression, and other mental illnesses.

Birth risks Unusual birth circumstances and

complications.

Low birth weight, premature birth, and pregnancy

complications. Genetic risks Risk factors attributed to genetic

heritability.

Genetic predispositions and monozygotic twin

differences. Biosocial interactions Interaction between individual

traits and environmental factors.

Neuropsychological deficits x family risk factors.

3.4 ANALYTICAL PLAN

To interpret as simply as possible the information provided by these publications, I collated how often a childhood and adolescent risk factor group was associated with a category of persistent offenders. The first step in doing this involved identifying all the risk factors measured in each study that were or were not found to be significantly associated with persistent offenders (p <.05) when non-offenders were the comparison group. I also recorded the category of persistent offenders these measures related to. For each category of persistent offenders, the total number of significant measures from each risk factor group were recorded and divided by the total number of measures analysed from that group. This produced a

groups were associated with each category of persistent offenders. Bear in mind that this method of data aggregation does not take into account the magnitude of effect between a risk factor and an operationalisation of persistent offending