Discusión

Because of his more positive view of human nature, Erikson rejects Freud’s conception of society as an inevitable source of confl ict:

The greatest diffi culty in the path of psychoanalysis as a general psychology probably consists in the rem- nants of its fi rst conceptualization of the environment as [a hostile] “outer world.” … Preoccupied with [symptoms and defenses,] … psychoanalysis had, at fi rst, little to say about the way in which the ego’s synthesis grows—or fails to grow—out of the soil of social organization… . [But psychoanalysis today is shifting its emphasis] to the study of the ego’s roots in social organization. (Erikson, 1963, pp. 15–16, 282; 1975, p. 105. See also Erikson, cited by Evans, 1967/1969, p. 26.)

A fi rm sense of identity or mastery requires the support of signifi cant others, as we have seen. Society also helps lighten the burdens of life by holding forth the promise of sanctioned roles, such as laborer, doctor, lawyer, mother, or father, which confi rm that an individual has found a workable and effective life plan. In addition, mutually enhancing relationships (mutuality) fulfi ll a major human need. Such

recognition provides us with the feeling that we exist in the eyes of others, and the denial of this need arouses intense hatred. (See Erikson, 1959, pp. 20–21; 1963, p. 277; 1968, pp. 87, 219; 1977, p. 88.)

Since Erikson believes that society plays a prominent role in molding the developing ego, he (unlike Freud) has devoted some time to studying the effects of different cultures on personality. Erikson observed fi rsthand two contrasting Native American tribes: the trusting and generous Sioux, hunters of South Dakota; and the miserly and suspicious Yurok, salmon fi shermen of northern California (Erikson, 1963, pp. 111–186). The Sioux allow their children to breast-feed for several years, whereas the Yurok prefer early weaning. The Sioux detest hoarders and insist on sharing with others even when their resources are meager, whereas the Yurok stress the importance of economic security. Thus the different identities of the typical Sioux and Yurok are due primarily to the different values in each society regarding sharing and weaning, including the Sioux “paradise of the practically unlimited privilege of the mother’s breast” versus the Yurok “residue of infantile nostalgia for the mother from whom he has been disengaged so forcefully,” rather than to some innate instinct (Erikson, 1963, pp. 63, 76).

The infl uence of society is not always benefi cial. It may be diffi cult to develop a fi rm sense of identity because we are confronted with contradictory values, as when our society stresses both competition (“winning is the only thing”) and cooperation (“do unto others … ”). A society may emphasize question- able values, as with the miserly Yurok. Societies create oppressed minorities, whose members may adopt the negative identity imposed by the majority. A seriously pathogenic culture may even infl ict this fate on a wide scale, as happened with the youths growing up in Nazi Germany (Erikson, 1963, pp. 326ff; Erikson, cited by Evans, 1967/1969, p. 32).

The Unconscious

To Erikson, the unconscious ranks among Freud’s greatest contributions. He concludes that, except for the implicit wisdom expressed in the Bible and Shakespeare, we have learned more in the past few decades about human motivation and development than during all of the preceding centuries. Even primitive cultures express an intuitive understanding of the unconscious, as indicated by rituals that attribute unusual dreams to supernatural visitations rather than to an individual’s conscious motivation. (See Erikson, 1959, p. 99; 1963, pp. 153, 190, 216; 1964, pp. 78, 147, 243.)

THE STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY

The Id

Except for the greater emphasis accorded the ego, Erikson’s conception of personality structure is similar to Freud’s. The id is entirely unconscious and amoral. It is the only component that is present at birth, and includes all of our inherited instincts.

The Ego

The ego is the logical, self-preservative, problem-solving part of personality. It mediates among the demands of the external world, the id, and the superego, and is largely unconscious. As in Freudian theory, the ego guards against illicit id impulses and an overly severe superego by using various defense mechanisms, including repression, reaction formation, projection, denial of reality, and fantasy. We may attribute to our neighbors those faults of which we are most ashamed (projection), blithely ignore warn- ings of such impending catastrophes as nuclear war or death (denial of reality), or try to make a negative identity seem like an apparent virtue (reaction formation).

In contrast to Freud, Erikson argues that defense mechanisms may also be used in adaptive ways. For example, fantasies may produce imaginative thoughts that help to solve important problems. The capacities of the ego also include such essential constructive functions as identity and mastery, as we have seen.

The Superego

The superego includes introjected ideals and restrictions, which help the ego to control the id. As in Freudian theory, however, the superego can become oppressive and impose overly harsh standards of right and wrong upon the ego. Another drawback of the superego is that it perpetuates internally the relationship of the superior, angry adult and the small, helpless child. If parental training fails to refl ect the standards of the society in which one lives, the rift between the ego and superego will deepen and lead to excessive intrapsychic confl ict. “Man survives only where traditional child training provides him with a conscience which will guide him without crushing him, and which is fi rm and fl exible enough to fi t the vicissitudes of his historical era” (Erikson, 1963, p. 95; see also Erikson, 1963, pp. 60, 122, 192–194, 257, 311–312; 1964, pp. 223–224; 1968, p. 218).

Although Erikson retains Freud’s structural model, he cautions against reifying such concepts as id, ego, and superego. He stresses that these are abstract, tentative constructs designed to facilitate the dis- cussion and understanding of personality, rather than concrete and universally established entities located somewhere within the psyche (Erikson, 1963, pp. 414–415; 1964, p. 77; 1975, p. 37).

THE DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY

Although Erikson occasionally devotes some attention to the Freudian concept of fi xation (1963, pp. 72–97), his approach to personality development uses different constructs and principles. He also rejects Freud’s “originological” efforts to explain personality wholly in terms of the fi rst 4 or 5 years of life. Instead Erikson stresses that personality development continues throughout the whole life cycle, and he posits eight stages that extend from infancy to old age.