DISCUSSION

attitudes

Introduction

In this chapter we continue the description of ways of gathering evidence within classroom activities, turning attention to process skills and attitudes. We first discuss the different considerations that apply because process skills and attitudes can be used and developed in all enquiries and investigations. We then look at the main methods of gathering evidence during activities: using observation, questioning and the possibilities offered by children’s writing. In the final section we consider what is involved in planning the collection of evidence as part of lesson preparation.

A structure for assessing process skills and attitudes

The National Curriculum for England describes the skills involved in science enquiry under three headings: planning; obtaining and presenting evidence; and considering evidence and evaluating. In the context of gathering information about these skills for formative assessment we find it useful to consider ‘obtaining evidence’ and ‘communicating’ separately. We also include the development of the scientific attitudes of ‘respect for evidence and the willingness to change ideas’, and ‘sensitivity to living things and the environment’, which are central to learning through scientific activity – and which apply as much to the work of scientists as to children’s learning. Figure 15.1 shows the process skills and attitudes with which we are dealing here and how they relate to the National Curriculum investigative skills.

Gathering evidence about process skills and attitudes

Unlike concepts and ideas, which are determined by the content of activities, the use and development of skills and attitudes are determined by the way in which children interact with the content. But the content does matter because it affects

the extent to which children can use the skills they may have. We don’t expect young children to be able to ‘process’ (that is, use process skills to make sense of) complex phenomena and events, particularly those that can only be understood using mental models. A six-year-old may well be able to draw conclusions about observations in a familiar situation such as rolling toy cars down inclined planes as the angle is changed, but not in relation to patterns of air flow around an aerofoil. So the children must be engaged in the exploration, investigation or discussion of subject matter within their understanding when their process skills are being assessed.

The main methods that teachers can use to find out about children’s process skills and attitudes are:

■ observation;

■ questioning, using questions that require use of process skills;

■ writing on tasks that require use of process skills.

Gathering information by observing children investigating

First we must acknowledge that the task of making useful observations of each and every child in relation to a range of skills and attitudes, and at the same time fostering their learning, is not just a formidable one, but is impossible. Neither is Figure 15.1Process skills and attitudes related to National Curriculum investigative skills

National Curriculum investigative skills Process skills and attitudes

Planning Questioning, predicting

and planning

Obtaining and presenting evidence Gather evidence by observing and using information sources

Interpreting evidence and drawing conclusions

Communicating and reflecting Interpreting and evaluating evidence Willingness to consider evidence

and change ideas

Sensitivity to living things and the environment

it expected. The collection of evidence about process skills is made into a manageable task by planning and focusing. At the same time, it is made worthwhile by the benefits to teaching and learning. Knowing where the children are in their development is essential to deciding how to help them, and the evidence gathered indicates the next steps to take (as we shall see in Chapter 16).

We deal with planning to gather evidence later in this chapter. At this point we take up the matter of focusing observation.

Identifying significant behaviour

Almost everything that a child does can give some evidence of his or her thinking.

But some things are more useful than others and it is necessary to be able to pick out the behaviour of most significance. This can be done with the help of

‘indicators’, which describe aspects of behaviour that can be taken as evidence of certain skills being used. Such indicators can be even more useful if they are chosen to describe different levels of development of the skills. The kind of thinking and information that this requires can be illustrated in relation to children’s skills in gathering information by observing.

Ask yourself: what would I look for as indications that a child is observing? The first thought might be that the child seems to be paying attention to details, possibly noticing similarities and differences between things, perhaps using senses other than sight.

Then ask yourself: how would observation be different for a younger child than for an older one? For the younger child the similarities and differences might be just the obvious ones, while for the older child we would expect more detail, more accuracy in observation, through the use of measurement and checking results.

Given more time and access to information about the development of skill in observation these statements could be refined into a list of indicators arranged as far as possible in the sequence of development. ‘As far as possible’ is a necessary qualification because there is not likely to be an exact and invariable sequence that is the same for all children, but it is helpful to have a rough idea.

As a result of this kind of thinking, and using shared experience of how children’s skills develop, the set of statements of ‘indicators of gathering evidence by observing and using information sources’ given in Box 15.1 was created. Boxes 15.2 to 15.6 give the results of similar exercises for the other process skills and attitudes identified in Figure 15.1 (note that the statements in Boxes 15.1 to 15.4 are based on ones produced by the authors for the ASE Science Year Primary CD-ROM).

Finding out children’s process skills and attitudes ¹⁵³

Box 15.1 Indicators of development of skill in gathering evidence by observing and using information sources

Things children do that are indicators of gathering evidence by observing and using information sources:

1 Identify obvious differences and similarities between objects and materials.

2 Make use of several senses in exploring objects or materials.

3 Identify relevant differences of detail between objects or materials and identify points of similarity between objects where differences are more obvious than similarities.

4 Use their senses appropriately and extend the range of sight using a hand lens or microscope as necessary.

5 Make an adequate series of observations to answer the question or test the prediction being investigated.

6 Take steps to ensure that the results obtained are as accurate as they can reasonably be and repeat observations.

7 Regularly and spontaneously use printed and electronic information sources to check or supplement their investigations.

Box 15.2 Indicators of development of skill in questioning, predicting and planning

Things children do when questioning, predicting and planning:

1 Readily ask a variety of questions and participate effectively in discussing how their questions can be answered.

2 Attempt to make a prediction relating to a problem or question even if it is based on preconceived ideas.

3 Suggest a useful approach to answering a question or testing a prediction by investigation, even if details are lacking or need further thought.

4 Identify the variable that has to be changed and the things that should be kept the same for a fair test.

5 Succeed in planning a fair test using the support of a framework of questions.

6 Identify what to look for or measure to obtain a result in an investigation.

7 Distinguish from many observations those that are relevant to the problem in hand and explain the reason.

Box 15.3 Indicators of development of skill in interpreting evidence and drawing conclusions

Things children do that are indicators of interpreting evidence and drawing con-clusions:

1 Discuss what they find in relation to their initial questions or compare their findings with their earlier predictions/expectations.

2 Notice associations between changes in one variable and another.

3 Identify patterns or trends in their observations or measurements.

4 Try to explain simple patterns in their observations or measurements.

5 Use patterns to draw conclusions and attempt to explain them.

6 Use scientific concepts in drawing or evaluating conclusions.

7 Recognise that there may be more than one explanation that fits the evidence and that any conclusions are tentative and may have to be changed in the light of new evidence.

Box 15.4 Indicators of development of skills in communicating and reflecting

Things children do when communicating and reflecting:

1 Talk freely about their activities and the ideas they have, with or without making a written record.

2 Listen to others’ ideas and look at their results.

3 Use drawings, writing, models, paintings to present their ideas and findings.

4 Use tables, graphs and charts when these are suggested to record and organise results.

5 Use appropriate scientific language in reporting and show understanding of the terms used.

6 Choose a form for recording or presenting results that is both considered and justified in relation to the type of information and the audience.

7 Compare their actual procedures after the event with what was planned and make suggestions for improving their ways of investigating.

Finding out children’s process skills and attitudes ¹⁵⁵

Box 15.5 Indicators of development in willingness to consider evidence in relation to ideas

Things children do when showing the scientific attitude of willingness to consider evidence in relation to ideas:

1 Recognise when the evidence does not fit a conclusion based on expectations.

2 Modify ideas enough to incorporate new evidence or arguments but resist relinquishing them.

3 Check parts of the evidence that do not fit an overall pattern or conclusion.

4 Show willingness to consider alternative ideas that may fit the evidence.

5 Relinquish or change ideas after considering the evidence.

6 Spontaneously seek other ideas that may fit the evidence rather than accepting the first that seems to fit.

7 Recognise that ideas can be changed by thinking and reflecting about different ways of making sense of the same evidence.

Box 15.6 Indicators of development in sensitivity to living things and the environment

Things children do when showing the scientific attitude of sensitivity to living things and the environment:

1 Take part in caring for living things in the classroom or around the school, with supervision.

2 Provide care for living things in the classroom or around the school with minimum supervision.

3 Show care for the local environment by behaviour that protects it from litter, damage and disturbance.

4 Adhere to a code of behaviour that avoids damage to the environment on visits outside the school; replacing disturbed stones, not collecting plants and returning animals caught for study to where they were found where possible.

5 Take responsibility, and initiative where necessary, for ensuring that living things in and around the classroom are cared for.

6 Take part in developing a code of care for the environment, with reasons for the actions identified.

7 Help in ensuring that others know about and observe such a code of care.

Using developmental indicators

In all these lists the earlier statements indicate skills or attitudes that are likely to be developed before the ones later in the list. However, as just mentioned, this will not necessarily be the case for every child. It should also be noted that there are no ‘levels’, grades or stages suggested: just a sequence expected for children in the primary, and perhaps early secondary, years. For formative assessment it is not necessary to tie indicators to grade level expectation – all that is required is to see where children are and what further progress they can make. Even though the same idea of development runs through the attainment targets of the National Curriculum, the numbers against the statements here do not signify levels in the same way, but they provide more detail of what to look for than the level descriptions. We must remember that their function is different from the level descriptions of attainment targets. See Box 15.7 for some important points about their use.

Box 15.7 Using developmental indicators

■ Developmental indicators are not intended to be used as checklists, carried around on clipboards.

■ They can serve their purpose best when carried around in teachers’ heads, guiding observation during normal activities.

■ It is advisable to start by using only one list – say that relating to children’s skill in observing and using information sources – and to become familiar with this before using lists relating to other skills.

■ Not all investigations give opportunities for all the skills to be used, so observations will need to be spread over several activities.

■ As children’s engagement with different subject matter will vary, it is important to gather evidence for each skill from several events.

■ Indicators can also be used in interpreting evidence from children’s oral and written answers, as well as from their actions.

The indicators have two important functions. First, they focus attention on particular aspects of behaviour that signify a skill or attitude in action. Being prepared regarding what to look for makes observing much easier. Second, because they are arranged in a rough sequence of progressive development, they give an indication of where a child has reached. If a child shows evidence of the first few behaviours, but not of later ones, then the change from one set to the other shows where help is needed to make further progress. We look more at this use of the indicators in Chapter 16.

Finding out children’s process skills and attitudes ¹⁵⁷

Questioning

In Chapter 14 we identified the most useful questions for probing children’s thinking as being ones that are open and person-centred (see page 143). We also noted that some open and person-centred questions were more appropriate for revealing children’s process skills than for giving access to their ideas. Questions that help in finding out about skills will be expressed so that, in answering, the children describe or show these skills.

For example, questions relating to gathering evidence by observing will be in the form:

What differences do you see . . . ? What else have you noticed . . . ? What is the evidence that you used . . . ? Questions relating to questioning and planning:

What questions would you like to answer. . . ? What do you think you need to do to find out . . . ? How will you make sure that the test is a fair one?

Questions relating to interpreting evidence and drawing conclusions:

What did you find about how . . . changed when you changed . . . ? What made a difference to . . . ?

What do you think explains what you found about . . . ?

Using written work

Not all the evidence of process skills needs to be collected through on-the-spot observation. Children’s written work often gives useful information, particularly in the case of older children, when the tasks are set to require them to describe their observations, predictions, plans and how they carried them out. The examples in Figures 15.2 to 15.4 illustrate the value of the products. They all come from Paterson (1989).

In Figure 15.2 two predictions are made, both of which can be tested by investigation. The first prediction is based on the everyday experience that it is easier to see things that are closer than those that are far away. However, the basis of the second prediction, about people wearing glasses, is less easy to follow and deserves discussion.

Figure 15.3 shows a child’s reflection on an investigation of how far away the sound can be heard of a penny being dropped. Not only does she identify the deficiencies of the investigation carried out, she shows some aspects of planning, including the ingenious use of an instrument to measure the sound level.

Figure 15.4 shows very detailed observation, using four senses, carefully and vibrantly described so that the reader can almost share the experience.

Planning to gather evidence during activities

Collecting evidence to build up a picture of all children in a class over all skills, concepts and attitudes is a task that requires a thought-out strategy. It will not happen automatically but needs to be planned as part of lesson planning if the result is not to be patchy and only about the readily assessed parts of children’s achievement. Three points have to be considered in planning for assessment:

Finding out children’s process skills and attitudes ¹⁵⁹

Figure 15.2An 11-year-old’s prediction as part of planning an investigation

Figure 15.3A nine-year-old’s reflection after reporting her investigation

■ which skills, ideas and attitudes will be assessed out of those that could be assessed;

■ which children will be assessed;

■ what part children will play, through self-assessment.

The third of these is the subject of Chapter 17. We consider the first two here.

Figure 15.4Observations recorded by two ten-year-olds

When to assess what

Different aspects of achievement offer different assessment opportunities. It is useful to consider the frequency of opportunities.

■ ‘Frequently occurring’ events. Since the skills and attitudes relating to investigation can be assessed in many different situations, the opportunity for their assessment will occur as frequently as children undertake investigations. They do not need to be assessed for all children every time they occur, which is fortunate because this would be impossible. Because of their nature, assessing these skills involves, particularly for young children, careful observation on the spot of how they carry out the activities.

■ ‘Infrequently occurring’ events. Ideas relating to specific subject matter, such as magnetism or seed germination, can only be assessed when activities relate to these things. Information needs to be gathered about all the children working on a particular content while the opportunity exists.

Fortunately, these are the aspects of achievement that can be assessed through questioning groups or through children’s drawing and writing, things that can be studied after the event rather than assessed on the spot, so that it is possible to collect information about several groups of children or even a whole class during the time the relevant activities are in progress.

In planning what to assess, therefore, it is best to consider, first, the infrequently occurring aspects and make sure that information will be obtained about these for all the children concerned, selecting the methods from those discussed in Chapter 14. Then plan for the frequently occurring aspects, which will be assessed for some of the children, using methods suggested in this chapter.

Selecting the children

The greatest benefit of planning assessment is perhaps that it ensures that information is gathered equitably about all the children, not just the ones who need most help or claim most attention. It depends upon keeping records and carrying out the assessment systematically.

■ For infrequently occurring aspects, the teacher needs to plan how to collect information about the ideas of all the children at the appropriate points – perhaps at the start of activities. But it may be that he or she already has,

■ For infrequently occurring aspects, the teacher needs to plan how to collect information about the ideas of all the children at the appropriate points – perhaps at the start of activities. But it may be that he or she already has,

In document Basal middle Miocene Listriodontinae (Suidae, Artiodactyla) from Madrid, Spain (página 31-36)