Diseñar una estrategia para tu meta (S)

J. Poyry, Solid Wood products Competitiveness Study Document, American Forest and Paper Association (AFPA), Washington, D.C.,1995.

M. Apscy, l .Red, World Timber Resources Outlook, Current Perception: A

Discussion Paper, 2nd edn. Council of Forest Industries. Vancouver, 1995.

S. Nilsson, Do We Have Enough Forest? International Institute for Applied System Analisis, Laxenburge, 1996.

FAO,State of the world’s Forests 1997, Food and Agriculture Organization ( FAO), Rome, 1997,

. Buehlmann, U., Ragsdale, C. T., & Gfeller, B. (2000). A spreadsheet-based

decision support system for wood panel manufacturing. Decision Support

G. Stone, Producttion and economy, Nordic Wood Conference on Multi-Story Timber House, Stockholm, Sweden, September 15, 1999.

Stehn, L., & Bergstro, M. (2002). Integrated design and production of multi-storey timber frame houses } production e ! ects caused by customer-oriented design, 77, 259–269.

Hunt, D. (2012). Properties of wood in the conservation of historical wooden artifacts. Journal of Cultural Heritage. doi:10.1016/j.culher.2012.03.014 Kozem Šilih, E., & Premrov, M. (2010). Analysis of timber-framed wall elements

with openings. Construction and Building Materials, 24(9), 1656–1663.

doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.02.026

Daian, G., & Ozarska, B. (2009). Wood waste management practices and strategies to increase sustainability standards in the Australian wooden furniture manufacturing sector. Journal of Cleaner Production, 17(17), 1594–1602. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2009.07.008

Morrell, J. J. (2002). Wood-based building components: what have we learned?

International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation, 49(4), 253–258.

doi:10.1016/S0964-8305(02)00052-5

Pegler, H. C., & Kochhar, a. K. (1988). Aspects of a knowledge-based tool for

manufacturing systems design. Computer Integrated Manufacturing

147

Systems, 1(4), 221–227. doi:10.1016/0951-5240(88)90054-7

Rodríguez, C. a., de Ciurana, J., & Elías, A. (2005). Industry and university cooperation to enhance manufacturing education. Journal of

Manufacturing Systems, 24(3), 277–287.

doi:10.1016/S0278-6125(06)80019-1

Criswell, M. E. (1990). Enhancement of system performance by component interaction in wood framing subassemblies. Structural Safety, 7(2-4), 281–

290. doi:10.1016/0167-4730(90)90076-2

Chen, C. J., Lee, T. L., & Jeng, D. S. (2003). Finite element modeling for the

mechanical behavior of dowel-type timber joints. Computers & Structures,

148

11 Assessment of Carbon Dioxide Emission from Road Transportation in South Eastern Part of Niger State, Nigeria

Okelola Olumayokun^*and Okhimamhe Appollonia

Geography Department, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria

*Corresponding Author:

[email protected]

Abstract: Climate change, often referred to as global warming, is considered to be one of the greatest environmental threats facing the world today is caused by the emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) into the atmosphere. The principal greenhouse gas is carbon dioxide. One prominent source of carbon dioxide emission is the transportation sector.

Not much was known about the emission levels of carbon dioxide, the primary greenhouse gas from the road transportation in the study area. Therefore, this study assessed the levels of carbon dioxide as a greenhouse gas emission from road transportation in the south eastern part of Niger State. The three major south eastern cities investigated are; Minna, Bida and Suleja. The database shows the carbon dioxide data collected and their sampled junctions Gasman carbon dioxide gas meter was used to take the carbon dioxide emission readings in Parts per Million for the peak and off-peak periods of vehicular movement at the selected sample road junctions with their Global Positioning System GPS coordinates in the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM). Further statistical analysis was also carried out on the data recorded from the field using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences SPSS software to show the variance of the emission levels across each of the locations of interest in the study area.

The results established that emissions‟ level of carbon dioxide from the road transportation in the study area exceeded the internationally accepted safe limits of 350 parts per million needed in the atmosphere. In the light of the conclusions, recommendations made for climate change mitigation via carbon dioxide emissions reduction from transportation includes; introduction of the urban mass transit and the use of vehicles using renewable sources of energy.

Keywords: Carbon Dioxide Emission Assessment, Road Transportation, Niger State, Nigeria.

11.1 INTRODUCTION

11.1.1 Background Study

Global warming or climate change is simply defined as measurable increases in the average temperature of Earth’s atmosphere, oceans, and landmasses. Climate change, often referred to as global warming, is considered to be one of the greatest environmental threats facing the world today. Scientists believe Earth is currently facing a period of rapid warming brought on by rising levels of heat-trapping gases, known as greenhouse gases, in the atmosphere. Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research (CICERO) (2008) stated that the global emissions from different transport sectors (road, rail, shipping, and aviation) in year 2000 affect the future temperature. While air transport has some strong climate effects that decrease relatively quickly over time, emissions from road transport have a strong and long-lasting effect on climate.

There is now scientific evidence that, carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentrations in the atmosphere increased from approximately 280 parts per million (PPM) in pre-industrial times to 382 PPM in 2006, a 36 percent increase. According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) Earth Systems Research Laboratory, almost all of the increase is due to human activities (IPCC, 2007). With more emission of

149

carbon dioxide, the atmosphere acts like a thickening blanket and traps more heat.

(Encarta, 2009).

Figure 1.1 shows the history of atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations as directly measured at Mauna Loa, Hawaii. This curve is known as the Keeling curve, and is an essential piece of evidence of the man-made increases in greenhouse gases that some believe to be the cause of global warming.

Hansen et al (2008) noted that, 350 parts per million is the safe upper limit of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, above which the planet is in a state of climate crisis. To preserve our planet, scientists tell us we must reduce the amount of CO₂ in the atmosphere from its current level of 392 parts per million to below 350 PPM. The target posed by leading NASA climate scientist James Hansen of stabilising atmospheric carbon dioxide at 350 parts per million (PPM) is increasingly understood in conjunction with the need to keep cumulative emissions within a tight global ‚budget‛. From a CO₂ concentration at the time of 385 PPM, Hansen argued, the level needed to be cut to 350 PPM at most.

Figure 1.1: Atmospheric Carbon dioxide measured at Mauna Loa, Hawaii:Source

: 350.org, (2011)

11.2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Hansen (2006) noted that 350 is the safe upper limit of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, above which the planet is in a state of climate crisis.

To preserve our planet, scientists tell us

we must reduce the amount of CO

in the atmosphere from its current level of

392 parts per million to below 350 PPM. The target posed by leading National

stabilising atmospheric carbon dioxide at 350 parts per million (PPM) is

increasingly understood in conjunction with the need to keep cumulative

150