Capítulo II: “Diseño e implementación del sitio Web”
2.2. Especificación de los requerimientos:
2.2.3. Diseño de la base de datos
The NHS National Screening Programme was introduced in England and Wales in
1988. Three years later, 80% of all women between the ages of 20‐65 were being
tested on a 5‐yearly basis. Today, the screening programme targets women aged
between 25 and 64. Since the introduction of the programme, mortality from
cervical cancer has fallen by 7% per year. It has been estimated that the risk of
dying from cervical cancer falls by 75% when a patient attends regular screening
appointments.
There has been a gradual decline over the past ten years in the percentage of
eligible women who have attended screening at least once in five years. In 1996,
82% of eligible women were screened, compared with 79.5% in 2006.
Papanicolaou smear test
This technique involves taking a sample of cervical cells which are then assessed
for signs of abnormality. The preparation is stained using the Papanicolaou
technique, resulting in the nuclei staining blue, the superficial cytoplasm pink,
and the intermediate para‐basal cell cytoplasm blue/green.
The cervical screening programme uses this technique to detect CIN by screening
the asymptomatic population. The programme aims to reduce mortality from
cervical carcinoma through earlier detection of the disease.
Despite the success of the smear programme, Papanicolaou cytology has
important limitations. Meta‐analysis has indicated that the average sensitivity of
cervical smear cytology in detecting CIN or invasive cancer is 51% and its average
specificity is 98%. The test’s high false negative rate is therefore its most critical
limitation. About one‐third of false‐negative diagnoses can be attributed to slide
interpretation errors and two‐thirds to poor sample collection and slide
preparation.
Although pre‐invasive lesions developing from the endocervical epithelium can be
identified by this process, the method is mainly for identifying squamous lesions
and cannot reliably exclude endocervical disease.
STAGING AND GRADING
There are two types of invasive carcinoma of the cervix. Approximately 70‐80% of
lesions are squamous cell carcinoma and 20‐30% adenocarcinomas. The degree
of invasion histologically may be either:
• early stromal (invasion is less than 3mm below the basement membrane) • micro‐invasive (invasion is less than 5mm below the basement membrane) • invasive (invasion is more than 5mm below the basement membrane)
Once a patient is diagnosed with invasive carcinoma, the cancer is staged. Stage is
determined at the time of primary diagnosis and should never be changed, even
after recurrence or upon later discovery of more extensive disease during
surgery. Stage is determined clinically and on the basis of the size of the tumour
in the cervix or its extension into the pelvis. Although the results of CT, MRI, or
PET cannot be used for staging, the information obtained can be used to assess
more accurately the extent of pelvic disease and lymph node metastasis, which
may affect treatment recommendations.
Cervical cancer is staged using the International Federation of Gynecology and
Obstetrics (FIGO) staging system. This is based on clinical examination, as
opposed to surgical findings, and allows only the use of the following procedures
in staging of cervical cancer: • palpation • inspection • colposcopy • endocervical curettage • hysteroscopy • cystoscopy • proctoscopy • intravenous urography
• x‐ray examination of the lungs and skeleton • cervical conization
The TNM staging procedure for cervical cancer produces an equivalent stage to
the FIGO system. The TNM system for cervical cancer describes a stage 0 cancer
(or CIN) as being full‐thickness involvement of the epithelium without stromal
involvment, stage I as limited to the cervix (there are various sub‐classifications),
third of the vagina, and stage IV as invasion of the bladder or rectal mucosa
and/or extension beyond the true pelvis (IVa), or distant metastases (IVb). Stages
II and III also have a number of sub‐classifications.
MANAGEMENT
Management of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia
Low‐grade CIN (CIN 1) is managed by recurrent smear testing and colposcopy
every 6 months, as evidence has suggested that this is a safe timescale.
Alternatively, it can be treated in the same way as higher grade lesions. For
patients with higher grade lesions (CIN 2 and 3 and dyskaryotic glandular cells),
immediate treatment either by excision or destruction of the affected area
(usually the whole of the transformation zone) is required.
The main therapies used for destruction are laser ablation or large loop excision
of the transformation zone, LLETZ (using a diathermy loop wire). These can both
be carried out under local anaesthetic. Lesions on the ectocervix can be
adequately treated by removing tissue to a depth of 8mm. However, if the SCJ
cannot be seen or a lesion of the glandular epithelium is suspected, then a deeper
“cone” biopsy must be taken to ensure that all the endocervix is sampled.
Following a cone biopsy, patients are advised to abstain from intercourse and not
to use tampons for four weeks in order to reduce the chance of infection.
Complications of cone biopsy The commonest complication of cone biopsy is
haemorrhage which may occur within twelve hours of the operation (primary), or
between the fifth and twelfth day following the operation (secondary). Haemorrhage is best controlled by compression with vaginal packing or by re‐
suturing the cervix if more severe. Haemorrhage that occurs later is commonly
due to infection, and the management includes blood transfusion and antibiotic
therapy.
Later complications include cervical stenosis with dysmenorrhoea and
haematometra (accumulation of blood in the uterus). Cone biopsy may also result
in cervical incompetence and subsequent mid‐trimester miscarriage.